Understanding Employee Motivation Theories and Practices

1. Management11e John Schermerhorn Chapter 15 Motivation Theoryand Practice

2. Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions • How do individual needs influence motivation? • What are the process theories of motivation? • What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • What is the link between job design and motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

3. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work Management 11e Chapter 15

4. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Needs • Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual • Explain workplace behavior and attitudes • Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior • Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction Management 11e Chapter 15

5. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Hierarchy of needs theory • Developed by Abraham Maslow • Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes • Lower-order needs: • Physiological, safety, and social needs • Desires for physical and social well being • Higher-order needs: • Esteem and self-actualization needs • Desire for psychological growth and development Management 11e Chapter 15

6. Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs Management 11e Chapter 15

7. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Hierarchy of needs theory • Deficit principle • A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior • Progression principle • A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied Management 11e Chapter 15

8. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • ERG theory • Developed by Clayton Alderfer • Three need levels Management 11e Chapter 15

9. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • ERG theory • Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time • Frustration-regression principle • An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated Management 11e Chapter 15

10. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Two-factor theory • Developed by Frederick Herzberg • Hygiene factors: • Elements of the job context • Sources of job dissatisfaction • Satisfier factors: • Elements of the job content • Sources of job satisfaction and motivation Management 11e Chapter 15

11. Figure 15.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory Management 11e Chapter 15

12. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Developed by David McClelland • People acquire needs through their life experiences • Needs that are acquired: Management 11e Chapter 15

13. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Need for Achievement (nAch) • Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks • People high in (nAch) prefer work that: • Involves individual responsibility for results • Involves achievable but challenging goals • Provides feedback on performance Management 11e Chapter 15

14. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Need for Power (nPower) • Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people • Personal power versus social power • People high in (nPower) prefer work that: • Involves control over other persons • Has an impact on people and events • Brings public recognition and attention Management 11e Chapter 15

15. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation? • Acquired needs theory • Need for Affiliation (nAff) • Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons • People high in (nAff) prefer work that: • Involves interpersonal relationships • Provides for companionship • Brings social approval Management 11e Chapter 15

16. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Process theories of motivation … • How people make choices to work hard or not • Choices are based on: • Individual preferences • Available rewards • Possible work outcomes • Types of process theories: • Equity theory • Expectancy theory • Goal-setting theory Management 11e Chapter 15

17. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Equity theory • Developed by J. Stacy Adams • When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation • Perceived inequity • Perceived equity Management 11e Chapter 15

18. Figure 15.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison Management 11e Chapter 15

19. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Equity theory • People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing … • Work inputs • Rewards received • Comparison points • Situation Management 11e Chapter 15

20. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of equity theory— • Underpaid people experience anger • Overpaid people experience guilt • Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes • Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated • Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace • Gender equity • Comparable worth Management 11e Chapter 15

21. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Expectancy theory • Developed by Victor Vroom • Key expectancy theory variables: • Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance • Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards • Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes Management 11e Chapter 15

22. Figure 15.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation Management 11e Chapter 15

23. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Expectancy theory • Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low Management 11e Chapter 15

24. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of expectancy theory— • To maximize expectancy, managers should: • Select workers with ability • Train workers to use ability • Support work efforts • Clarify performance goals Management 11e Chapter 15

25. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of expectancy theory— • To maximize instrumentality, managers should: • Clarify psychological contracts • Communicate performance-outcome possibilities • Identify rewards that are contingent on performance Management 11e Chapter 15

26. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Managerial implications of expectancy theory— • To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should: • Identify individual needs • Adjust rewards to match individual needs Management 11e Chapter 15

27. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Goal-setting theory • Developed by Edwin Locke • Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating • Motivational effects of task goals: • Provide direction to people in their work • Clarify performance expectations • Establish a frame of reference for feedback • Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management Management 11e Chapter 15

28. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

29. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Goal-setting theory • Participation in goal setting • unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting • management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation • when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist Management 11e Chapter 15

30. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Self-Efficacy Theory • a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task • Capability directly affects motivation • higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy • self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting Management 11e Chapter 15

31. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation? • Self-Efficacy Theory • Enactive mastery • person gains confidence through positive experience • Vicarious modeling • learning by observing others • Verbal persuasion • encouragement from others that one can perform a task • Emotional arousal • high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation Management 11e Chapter 15

32. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Fundamentals of reinforcement theory • Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior • Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior Management 11e Chapter 15

33. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Operant conditioning: • Developed by B.F. Skinner • Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences Management 11e Chapter 15

34. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Operant conditioning strategies: • Positive reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence • Negative reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence Management 11e Chapter 15

35. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Operant conditioning strategies: • Punishment • Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence • Extinction • Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence Management 11e Chapter 15

36. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on • Law of contingent reinforcement — • Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited • Law of immediate reinforcement — • More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has Management 11e Chapter 15

37. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

38. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Schedules of reinforcement: • Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs • Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically • Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement • Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent • Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it Management 11e Chapter 15

39. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • Guidelines for using punishment: • Tell the person what is being done wrong • Tell the person what is being done right • Match the punishment to the behavior • Administer punishment in private • Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement Management 11e Chapter 15

40. Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management Management 11e Chapter 15

41. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job • A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives • Job design • The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups • Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result Management 11e Chapter 15

42. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job simplification • Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks • Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth • Automation • Total mechanization of a job • Most extreme form of job simplification Management 11e Chapter 15

43. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? Management 11e Chapter 15

44. Figure 15.6 Basic job design alternatives Please insert figure 15.6 here Management 11e Chapter 15

45. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job rotation and job enlargement: • Expands job scope • Job rotation • Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments • Job enlargement • Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers • Horizontal loading Management 11e Chapter 15

46. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job enrichment • Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content • Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally performed by a supervisor Management 11e Chapter 15

47. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • Job characteristics model • Satisfaction and performance are influencec by three critical psychological states: • Experienced meaningfulness of work • Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes • Knowledge of actual results of work activities Management 11e Chapter 15

48. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • The three critical psychological states are influenced by five core job characteristics: • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Feedback Management 11e Chapter 15

49. Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation? • How to improve core job characteristics: • Form natural units of work • Combine tasks • Establish client relationships • Open feedback channels • Practice vertical loading Management 11e Chapter 15

50. Figure 15.7 Designing jobs using the core characteristics model Please insert figure 15.7 here Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90. Management 11e Chapter 15