Instructional Design &Technology: A History

1. Instructional Design &Technology: A History Jeannie Nelson The University of Texas at Brownsville EDTC 3310 – Introduction to Educational Technology Janice Wilson Butler, Ed.D. October 5, 2013 Picture from Microsoft Clip Art

2. Edward Thorndike (Early 1900s) Studied animal behavior and learning Published Educational Psychology (1903) Published Introduction to Theory of Mental and Social Measurement (1904) Thorndike’s works outlined testing principles and applications of learning(Thorndike, 2011). These works and Thorndike’s theory of connectivism were the precursors of behaviorism and education as a science (Ho, n.d.). Photo from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect

3. John Franklin Bobbitt (1920s) Bobbitt established curriculum as a field of education specialization & was an early advocate of using objectives in curriculum design (Franklin, 2013). Published How to Make a Curriculum (1924) Published The Curriculum (1918) Bobbitt’s work was based on principles of scientific management and was borrowed from the engineering field (Franklin, 2013). Photo from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin_Bobbitt

4. Ralph W. Tyler (1933-1941) Tyler headed the “Eight Year Study”, which evaluated the curricula of 30 secondary schools and 300 colleges (Hlebowitsh, 2013). Findings from the “Eight Year Study” led to refinement of objective writing procedures and the formative evaluation process (Ho, n.d.). Photo from http://ehe.osu.edu/teaching-and-learning/about/tradition/

5. World War II Innovations(1939-1945) Psychologists and educators like Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs & John Flanagan developed training materials for the United States military (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 23). Evaluation and testing was used to assess trainee skills and to choose individuals most likely to benefit from specific training programs (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 23). Photo from www.history.army.mil

6. Post World War II Innovations(1940s-1950s) Psychologists involved in WWII military training continued to work on finding solutions to instructional problems and The American Institutes for Research were established(Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 23). Training came to be viewed as a system. Analysis, design and evaluation procedures were developed (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 23). Photo from http://www.edvanceresearch.com/rel-research-partners.htm

7. B.F.Skinner (1954-1965) Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Behaviorism) Theory led to the concept of programmed instruction (Culatta, 2013). • Basics of operant conditioning (Culatta 2013): • Positively reinforced behavior is repeated • Negatively reinforced behavior diminishes Characteristics of programmed instruction (Clark, 2010b): Clear objectives Instruction broken into small pieces Self-paced learning Active learner response to questions Immediate feedback Photo from http://bfskinner.org/bfskinner/Home.html

8. Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) Dr. Benjamin Bloom & Colleagues published a Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Bloom’s Taxonomy divides learning into three domains(Clark, 2013): 1. Cognitive 2. Affective 3. Psychomotor Each domain is further divided into divisions of desired behaviors ranging from simple to complex (Clark, 2013). Photo from http://www.tfioh.com/Hypnosis-and-Hypnotherapy.html

9. Robert Mager (1962) The use of objectives became popular after Mager published Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction(Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p.24). Mager outlined criteria for objective writing (Reiser & Dempsey,p.24): Description of desired behaviors Conditions for performance of desired behaviors Standards for judging performance of desired behaviors Photo from http://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com/2012/04/mager-mr-learning-objectives-in-this.html

10. Robert Glaser (1963) Glaser and others proposed criterion-referenced testing as an alternative to norm-referenced testing (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 24). • Norm-Referenced • Tests • (Huitt, n.d.) • Rank student performance • in comparison to other • students in broad areas • of knowledge • Sort students into high and • low categories of • achievement • Criterion-Referenced Tests • (Huitt, n.d.) • Determine whether each • individual student has • mastered a specific skill • or concept • Find out how much each • student knows at the • beginning and end of • instruction Photo from http://www.utimes.pitt.edu/?p=19743

11. Robert Gagné (1965) Gagné published The Conditions of Learning (1965),which outlined five domains of learning outcomes and nine events of instruction(Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p.25). Five Domains (Dabbagh, n.d.) Intellectual Skills Cognitive Strategy Verbal Information Attitude Motor Skills Nine Events (Clark, 2012) Gain attention Inform learner of objective Stimulate recall of prior info Present information Provide guidance Elicit performance Provide feedback Assess performance Enhance retention & transfer Photo from http://wikigrup1final.wikispaces.com/Robert+Gagn%C3%A9

12. Formative and Summative Evaluation (1967) In response to the 1957 Soviet launch of Sputnik, the United States spent millions of dollars on instruction geared toward improving math and science education without any “learner tryouts” (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 25). In the mid 1960’s the instruction was shown to be ineffective (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 25). Educators developed procedures for evaluating educational materials both during and after design. Michael Scriven (1967) coined the term “formative evaluation” for evaluation during the design process and “summative evaluation” for evaluation conducted after design completion (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 25). Photo from http://amyshirateitel.com/2011/04/10/the-enigmatic-vostok-1/

13. Term “Instructional Design” Coined (Mid 1960s) As models for systematic design of instruction emerged, the term “instructional design” was born(Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 25). Other terms that were used included “system development”, “systematic instruction” and “instructional system” (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 25). Photo from http://brownemergingtech.com/eme6601/Session6.html

14. Proliferation of Instructional Design Models (1970s) Many models for instructional design emerged in the 1970s (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 25).Some of these models are the basis for current models of instructional design. Photos from http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=instructional+design+models&go=&qs=n&form=QBIR&pq=instructional+design+models&sc=8-27&sp=-1&sk=

15. Instructional Design Models Adopted by Military, Business/Industry & Academia (1970s) The US military adopted an instructional design model in 1975 (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 26). Business and industry adopted instructional design models to use for training improvements in the 1970’s (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 26). Instructional improvement centers emerged in the academic arena in the 1970’s. These were designed to help faculty use media and instructional design techniques to improve instruction (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 26). Photos from Microsoft Clip Art

16. Computers Used for Instruction (1980s) The advent of personal computers led to the design of computer-based instruction. Computers were also used to automate some of the design process (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 26). Photo from http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=Old+Computer&FORM=RESTAB

17. Merrill, Li & Jones (1990) As the use of computer-based instruction and computer automated design grew, professionals like Merrill, Lee and Jones recognized the need to develop new instructional design models that could accommodate the interactive capabilities of new technology (Ho, n.d.). Photo from Microsoft Clip Art

18. Human Performance Technology (1990s) Human performance technology: “a systematic approach to improving productivity and competence, uses a set of methods and procedures --and a strategy for solving problems -- for realizing opportunities related to the performance of people” (International Society for Performance Improvement, n.d.). The human performance improvement movement expanded the scope of the instructional technology field by focusing on on-the-job training, business results, and non-instructional interventions (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p.26) . Photo from http://theengagementeffect.com/our-toolset/additional-tools/human-performance-improvement

19. Constructivism (1990s) Constructivism, which dates back to the 1930’s, gained popularity in the 1990s (Clark, 2010c; Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 26). Constructivists believe that the learner constructs his/her own knowledge through an active process of interactions with his/her environment (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 45). Constructivist design focuses on “authentic learning tasks” that are relevant to the context in which learned skills will be used (Rieser & Dempsey, 2012, p.26). Photo from http://www.idi.ntnu.no/~terjery/it1301/H07/Forelesning2TeorierEng.html

20. Electronic Performance Support Systems (1990s) Instructional designers began to develop electronic performance support systems (EPSS) in the early 1990s (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p.27). EPSS software is designed to improve productivity of workers on-the-job by providing ready access to learning opportunities, training and consultation through online manuals, wizards and Help Systems ( Clark, 2010a). Photo from http://www.l-3training.com/solutions/support

21. E-Learning (21st century) The 21st century brought increased use of the Internet for delivery of instruction in business, industry, the military, elementary and higher education (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 27). New design challenges have emerged as online instruction has become popular (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 27). Design features that are effective for classroom instruction may not achieve the same results from online instruction (Ho, n.d). Photo from http://www.tivulcan.com.br/ver-servico/e-learning

22. References Clark, D. (2010, a). Electronic performance support system. Big Dog and Little Dog's Performance Juxtaposition. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/epss.html Clark, D. (2010, b). B. F. Skinner. Big Dog and Little Dog's Performance Juxtaposition. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/skinner.html Clark, D. (2010, c). Constructivism. Big Dog and Little Dog's Performance Juxtaposition. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html Clark, D. (2012). Robert Gagné's nine steps of instruction. Big Dog and Little Dog's Performance Juxtaposition. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/nine_step_id.html Clark, D. (2013). Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains. Big Dog and Little Dog's Performance Juxtaposition. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html Culatta, R. (2013). Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner). Instructional Design. Retrieved from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operant-conditioning.html Dabbagh, N. (n.d.). Gagne's five learned capabilities. Retrieved from http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/Resources2/gagnetax.htm Edward L. Thorndike. (2011). In New World Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Edward_L._Thorndike

23. References Franklin, B. M. (2013). Franklin Bobbitt (1876–1956) - Social efficiency movement, Bobbitt's contribution. Education Encyclopedia- State University. Retrieved from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1794/Bobbitt-Franklin-1876-1956.html Hlebowitsh, P. (2013). Ralph W. Tyler (1902–1994) - Contribution to testing and curriculum development, advisory role. Education Encyclopedia- State University. Retrieved from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2517/Tyler-Ralph-W-1902-1994.html Ho, W. (n.d.). Instructional technology: A historical view. Retrieved from http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxh139/IT_history.htm Huitt, W. G. (n.d.). Measurement and evaluation: Criterion-versus norm-referenced testing. Education Psychology Interactive. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/measeval/crnmref.html International Society for Performance Improvement. (n.d.). What is HPT? International Society for Performance Improvement. Retrieved from http://www.ispi.org/content.aspx?id=54 Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2012). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.