Chapter 19

1. Chapter 19 Viruses

2. Overview: A Borrowed Life • Viruses called bacteriophages infect genetically takeover bacteria, like E. coli • Viruses have borrowed life- between life-forms and chemicals • Molecular biology began w/ study of bacteriophages

3. Fig. 19-1 0.5 µm

4. Concept 19.1: A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat • Wendel Stanley – 1935 confirmed hypothesis that tobacco mosaic virus caused by submicroscopic particles • by crystallizing tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) from infected tobacco leaves • TMV- causes stunted growth in tobacco plants

5. Structure of Viruses • Viruses are not cells • Viruses- very small infectious particles consisting of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and, possibly, a membranous envelope

6. Viral Genomes • Viral genomes may be made of • Double- or single-stranded DNA, or • Double- or single-stranded RNA • Depending on its type of nucleic acid, a virus is called a DNA virus or an RNA virus

7. Capsids and Envelopes • A capsid is the protein shell that encloses the viral genome • Capsids are built from protein subunits called capsomeres • Capsid structures vary • Viral envelopes help some viruses infect hosts • Seen in influenza viruses and many animal viruses • derived from the host cell’s membrane • contains a combination of viral and host cell molecules

8. Fig. 19-3 RNA Membranous envelope Head DNA RNA DNA Capsomere Capsid Tail sheath Tail fiber Capsomere of capsid Glycoproteins Glycoprotein 18  250 nm 70–90 nm (diameter) 80  225 nm 80–200 nm (diameter) 20 nm 50 nm 50 nm 50 nm (a) Tobacco mosaic virus (b) Adenoviruses (d) Bacteriophage T4 (c) Influenza viruses

9. Bacteriophages- viruses that infect bacteria • have an elongated capsid head that encloses DNA • protein tail attaches virus to the host & injects phage DNA inside

10. Concept 19.2: Viruses reproduce only in host cells • Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites- can reproduce only inside a host cell • Each virus has a host range- a specific kind of cell or organism that it can infect

11. General Features of Viral Reproductive Cycles • Once a viral genome has entered a cell, the cell begins to manufacture viral proteins • The virus makes use of host enzymes, ribosomes, tRNAs, amino acids, ATP, and other molecules • Viral nucleic acid molecules and capsomeres spontaneously self-assemble into new viruses

12. Fig. 19-4 VIRUS Entry and uncoating 1 DNA Capsid Transcription and manufacture of capsid proteins 3 Replication 2 HOST CELL Viral DNA mRNA Capsid proteins Viral DNA Self-assembly of new virus particles and their exit from the cell 4

13. Reproductive Cycles of Phages • Phages – the most studied viruse • Phages- two reproductive mechanisms: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle

14. The Lytic Cycle • The lytic cycle- ends in the death of host cell • produces new phages, digests host cell wall, releasing progeny viruses • virulent phage - phage that reproduces only by lytic cycle • Bacteria have defenses against phages, including restriction enzymes that recognize and cut up certain phage DNA

15. Fig. 19-5-1 Attachment 1

16. Fig. 19-5-2 Attachment 1 2 Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA

17. Fig. 19-5-3 Attachment 1 2 Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA 3 Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins

18. Fig. 19-5-4 Attachment 1 2 Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA Phage assembly 4 Assembly 3 Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins Head Tail Tail fibers

19. Fig. 19-5-5 Attachment 1 2 Entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA 5 Release Phage assembly 4 Assembly 3 Synthesis of viral genomes and proteins Head Tail Tail fibers

20. The Lysogenic Cycle • lysogenic cycle- copies phage genome without destroying the host • viral DNA molecule is incorporated into host cell’s chromosome • prophage – integrated viral DNA • Every time host divides, it copies phage DNA and passes copies to daughter cells • environmental signal triggers virus genome to exit bacterial chromosome & switch to lytic mode • Phages that use both the lytic and lysogenic cycles are called temperate phages

21. Fig. 19-6 Daughter cell with prophage Phage DNA The phage injects its DNA. Cell divisions produce population of bacteria infected with the prophage. Phage DNA circularizes. Phage Bacterial chromosome Occasionally, a prophage exits the bacterial chromosome, initiating a lytic cycle. Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle The bacterium reproduces, copying the prophage and transmitting it to daughter cells. The cell lyses, releasing phages. Lytic cycle is induced Lysogenic cycle is entered or Prophage Phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome, becoming a prophage. New phage DNA and proteins are synthesized and assembled into phages.

22. Reproductive Cycles of Animal Viruses • Two key variables used to classify viruses that infect animals: • DNA or RNA? • Single-stranded or double-stranded?

23. Table 19-1a

24. Table 19-1b

25. Viral Envelopes • Many viruses infecting animals have membranous envelope • Viral glycoproteins on envelope surface bind to specific receptor molecules on host cell surface • Some are formed from the host cell’s plasma membrane as the viral capsids exit • Other from the host’s nuclear envelope (Later replaced by envelope from Golgi apparatus)

26. Fig. 19-7 Capsid and viral genome enter the cell Capsid RNA HOST CELL Envelope (with glycoproteins) Viral genome (RNA) Template mRNA Capsid proteins ER Copy of genome (RNA) Glyco- proteins New virus

27. RNA as Viral Genetic Material • The broadest variety of RNA genomes is found in viruses that infect animals • Retroviruses use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA • HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the retrovirus that causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

28. Fig. 19-8 Viral envelope Glycoprotein Capsid RNA (two identical strands) Reverse transcriptase HIV Membrane of white blood cell HIV HOST CELL Reverse transcriptase Viral RNA RNA-DNA hybrid 0.25 µm DNA HIV entering a cell NUCLEUS Provirus Chromosomal DNA RNA genome for the next viral generation mRNA New virus New HIV leaving a cell

29. Fig. 19-8b Membrane of white blood cell HIV 0.25 µm HIV entering a cell New HIV leaving a cell

30. The viral DNA integrated into host genome is called provirus • Unlike prophage, a provirus remains a permanent resident of the host cell • Host’s RNA polymerase transcribes the proviral DNA into RNA molecules • The RNA molecules function both as mRNA for synthesis of viral proteins and as genomes for new virus particles released from the cell

31. Evolution of Viruses • Viruses don’t fit our definition of living organisms • Since viruses can reproduce only within cells, they probably evolved as bits of cellular nucleic acid • Possible sources of viral genomes- • plasmids, circular DNA in bacteria and yeasts • transposons, small mobile DNA segments • Plasmids, transposons, and viruses are all mobile genetic elements • Mimivirus, a double-stranded DNA virus, is the largest virus yet discovered • There is controversy about whether this virus evolved before or after cells

32. Concept 19.3: Viruses, viroids, and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants • Diseases caused by viral infections affect humans, agricultural crops, and livestock worldwide • Smaller, less complex entities called viroids and prions also cause disease in plants and animals, respectively

33. Viral Diseases in Animals • Viruses may damage or kill cells by causing the release of hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes • Some viruses cause infected cells to produce toxins that lead to disease symptoms • Others have envelope proteins that are toxic

34. Vaccines are harmless derivatives of pathogenic microbes that stimulate the immune system to mount defenses against the actual pathogen • Vaccines can prevent certain viral illnesses • Viral infections cannot be treated by antibiotics • Antiviral drugs can help to treat, though not cure, viral infections

35. Emerging Viruses • Emerging viruses are those that appear suddenly or suddenly come to the attention of scientists • Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) recently appeared in China • Outbreaks of “new” viral diseases in humans are usually caused by existing viruses that expand their host territory

36. Flu epidemics are caused by new strains of influenza virus to which people have little immunity • Viral diseases in a small isolated population can emerge and become global • New viral diseases can emerge when viruses spread from animals to humans • Viral strains that jump species can exchange genetic information with other viruses to which humans have no immunity

37. These strains can cause pandemics, global epidemics • The “avian flu” is a virus that recently appeared in humans and originated in wild birds

38. Fig. 19-9 (a) The 1918 flu pandemic 0.5 µm (b) Influenza A H5N1 virus (c) Vaccinating ducks

39. Viral Diseases in Plants • More than 2,000 types of viral diseases of plants are known and cause spots on leaves and fruits, stunted growth, and damaged flowers or roots • Most plant viruses have an RNA genome • Plant viruses spread disease in two major modes: • Horizontal transmission, entering through damaged cell walls • Vertical transmission, inheriting the virus from a parent

40. Fig. 19-10

41. Viroids and Prions: The Simplest Infectious Agents • Viroids are circular RNA molecules that infect plants and disrupt their growth • Prions are slow-acting, virtually indestructible infectious proteins that cause brain diseases in mammals • Prions propagate by converting normal proteins into the prion version • Scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans are all caused by prions

42. Fig. 19-11 Original prion Prion Aggregates of prions New prion Normal protein

43. You should now be able to: • Explain how capsids and envelopes are formed • Distinguish between the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles • Explain why viruses are obligate intracellular parasites • Describe the reproductive cycle of an HIV retrovirus • Describe three processes that lead to the emergence of new diseases • Describe viroids and prions