RESEARCH METHODS PAD 215

1. RESEARCH METHODSPAD 215 COURSE OUTLINE • The Concept of Research (other methods of acquiring knowledge, various definitions, scientific research, characteristics, objectives, motivation, significance). • Typologies and the processes of research (typology based on application, purpose and mode of inquiry) and a diagrammatical representation of research process. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

2. Course Outline Contd • Defining the research problem • Review of the literature • Formulation of hypothesis and generation of research questions/propositions • Understanding Research Design Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

3. Course Outline Contd • Sampling and Sampling Techniques • Methods of Data Collection • Measurements, Scaling and Scales • Validity and Reliability of Measuring Instruments • Data Processing and Analysis • Historical Method of Research Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

4. Course Outline Contd • Research Report Writing • How to Write A Good Research Proposal • How to Write an Effective Abstract Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

5. Recommended Books • Chiamogu, P.A. and Onwughalu, V.C. (2014). Foundations of Research Methodology: Expositions and Applications. Enugu: Academic Publishers • Babbie, E., Halley, F.S., Wagner, W.E. & Zaino, J. (2013). Adventures in Social Research: Data Analysis Using IBM SPSS Statistics. London: Sage. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

6. Recommended Books Contd • Kumar, R. (2012). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, 3rd Edition. London: Sage. • Kerlinger, F.N. (1964). Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. • Akuezuilo, E. O. and Agu, N. (2003). Research and statistics in education and social sciences: Methods and applications. Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick Ltd Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

7. Recommended Books Contd • Babbie, E. and Mouton, J. (2011). The Practice of Social Research, South African Edition. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, South Africa. • Obasi, I.N. (1999). Research Methodology in Political Science. Enugu: Academic Publishers.  • Osuala, E.C. (1985). Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana-Fep. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

8. Research: A Process of Seeking Knowledge and other methods • Intuition: the use of common sense in identifying the truth • Authority/faith/fideism: accepting something to be true because it is coming from an expert or somebody/source that is accepted to be reliable or based on religious belief • Rationalism: knowledge based on reasoning • Empiricism: based on experience • Science (induction & deduction) then scientific research Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

9. The Concept of Research Research has been variously defined. Some Primary Definitions by scholars include: • Burns (2000: 2) defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’. By this submission, whenever somebody embarks upon an investigation following laid down procedures that another person can replicate, he is involved in research. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

10. Concept of Research Contd • Kerlinger (1964: 13) succinctly avers that ‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena’. This definition presupposes a regulated and process-oriented inquiry into association or otherwise between two or more variables or social situations/problems. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

11. The Concept of Research Contd • Redman and Mory (1923:10) define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” They point out an aspect of the importance of research that sometimes seems to be forgotten. This position is predicated on the notion that research grants practitioners opportunities of establishing new approaches and models when they adopt known procedures in examining existing knowledge and belief. Yes, environment and other factors including time might influence the position of some truism, principles and approaches such that when carefully studied would give rise to new models and information leading to new belief, etc. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

12. The Concept of Research Contd • Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

13. Key Characteristics of Research • Systematic • Replicable/Verifiable • Control • Rigorous/Critical • Recording • Objective/Lack of bias • Operationalization Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

14. Objectives of Research • To discover new facts • To find answers to questions or solutions to problems • To verify and test important facts • To analyze an event or process or phenomenon • To identify the cause and effect relationship between variables • To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and non scientific problems • To find solutions to scientific, non scientific and social problems and • To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

15. Research Motivations • Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; • Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; • Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; • Desire to be of service to society; • Desire to earn promotion amongst lecturers; • Desire to get respectability. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

16. Typologies of Research We shall categorize all forms of research in three, viz: • Application (pure/basic and Applied Research • Purpose and Objective (descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, correlational, etc) • Mode/method of Inquiry (structured and unstructured or quantitative and qualitative researches) Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

17. Diagrammatical Representation of the Typologies of Research Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

18. Diagrammatical Representation of the Research Process Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

19. Defining the Research Problem A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty or challenge which the researcher experiences. It may be existing in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and s/he wants to find an appropriate solution to it. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

20. Guides to Selecting a Research Problem • students are advised to avoid working on over stretched areas: areas that have become over flogged • Avoid controversial topics/areas • Avoid too narrow and ambiguous areas/topics • Selected subjects should be familiar, feasible and plausible • Select subjects that are relevant and related to your discipline • Consider cost and timing factors in selecting your area of interest Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

21. Techniques involved in defining a research problem • The techniques for this purpose involve taking the following steps generally one after the other: • statement of the problem in a general way; • understanding the nature of the problem; • surveying the available literature • developing the ideas through discussions; and • rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

22. Sources of Research Problems • One’s or personal interest • Personal experiences or observations • Course of study or area of study • Lecturer(s)/Supervisor(s) • Literature survey: Textbooks, Journals, Encyclopedia, Reference Books, Newspaper and Magazines, Periodicals, • Internet browsing • Media reports • Contemporary issues • Membership of particular group Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

23. The Review of Literature A literature review is a survey of everything that has been written about a particular topic, theory, or research question. It may provide the background for larger work, or it may stand on its own. Much more than a simple list of sources, an effective literature review analyzes and synthesizes information about key themes or issues. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

24. Importance of Review of the Literature • One of the early steps in planning a research work is to review research done previously in the particular area of interest and relevant area, quantitative and qualitative analysis of this research usually gives the researcher, inquirer or student an indication of the direction. • It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-date in his information about the literature, related to his own problem already done by others. It is considered the most important prerequisite to actual planning and conducting the study. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

25. Importance of Review of Literature Contd • It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take an advantage from similar or related literature as regards, to methodology, techniques of data collection, procedure adopted and conclusions drawn. S/he can justify his own endeavour in the field. • It provides as source of problem of study, an analogy may be drawn for identifying and selecting one's own problem of research. The researcher formulates his hypothesis on the basis of review of literature. It also provides the rationale for the study. The results and findings of the study can also be discussed at length. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

26. Importance of Review of Literature Contd • The review of literature indicates the clear picture of the problem to be solved. The scholarship in the field can be developed by reviewing the literature in the field. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

27. Objectives of Review of Literature • To find out what is already known, what others have attempted to find out, what methods of attack have been promising or disappointing and what problems remain to be solved, passing through the previous studies, literature, discussion and experience related to a problems under investigation must precede any well planned research study; • To enable the researcher to define the limits of his field: Review helps the researcher to delimit and define his problem. The knowledge of related literature makes the researcher up-to-date on the work which others have done. It enables him to state the objectives clearly and concisely; • It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may prove useful in the formulation of a new problem. • It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the problem adequately without requiring further investigation. It facilitates the avoidance of replication. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

28. Objectives of Review of Literature Contd • It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher can formulate research hypothesis on the basis of available studies. • It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the problem. • It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretation and discussion of results. The conclusions drawn in the related studies may be significantly compared and may be used as the subject for the findings of the study. • It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the area of study. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

29. Principles and Procedures for Review of Literature • It is generally advisable to get first and overall view by consulting a general source, such as a textbook which is more likely to provide the meaning and nature of the concepts and variables or theoretical framework of the field. The logical starting point is to get a clear picture of the problem to be solved. A text-book usually provides the theoretical aspects of the problem. It is very essential to develop deep understanding about the variables and the field.   • After developing the insight about the general nature of his problem, the investigator should review the empirical researches of the area. The best reference for this phase reference books like the handbook of research. Encyclopedia of Educational Research, the Review of Educational Research and International Abstracts for more up-to-date findings depending on the level of the investigator’s operation and education. The researcher’s major concern at this point should be to get a clear picture of the field as a whole; specific details are important at this stage. He should start from a topical outline and a temperature set of classifications, so that whatever he reads can be made meaningful. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

30. Principles and Procedures Contd • The research for library material must be systematic and thorough. The investigator generally should start by collecting his references from the educational index. When a large number of references are to be copied, they should be typed because precision is required here. • The researcher should take note systematically in the light of such criteria as uniformity, accuracy and ease of assembly. The notes should be taken on the card. Each entry should be made separately; references should be recorded with complete bibliographic data. It should be recorded on front side of the card and content should be taken below and reverse side of it. Each note should be recorded carefully and accurately. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

31. Principles and Procedures Contd • The investigator should take as complete notes as he might need. On the other hand, taking unnecessary notes is wasteful. The useful and necessary material should be recorded precisely. It would be better that similar sources are gathered. • It is necessary that a general education of each source, rather than simply a summary of its content be made. Such evaluation is necessary both in presenting the study in the review of literature, and in using the study as background for the interpretation of the findings of the study. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

32. Principles and Procedures Contd • A major pre-requisite for effective library work is the ability to read at high speed. This can only be developed through practice. He must learn to skim material to see what it has to contribute to the study, only after its reference has been established, it should be read in detail. Surveying the literature for the purpose of conducting research is not just ‘a pleasant excursion in the wonderful world of books’, it is a precise and exacting task of locating specific information for the specific purpose. • The actual note-taking process is always a difficult task for the researcher. He has to spend long hours in the library taking notes by hand. It is a very tedious job and leads to importance to carelessness and illegibility. He should make use of the facilities available in the library for this purpose. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

33. Sources for Review of Literature • books • Government publications • Periodicals/Journals • Annual reports • The internet • Theses/desertations • Abstracts • Reference Materials Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

34. Types of Review of Literature • Argumentative review • Integrative review • Historical review • Methodological review • Systematic review • Theoretical review Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

35. Common mistakes in review of literature • Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem; • You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem; • Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data; • Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis; • Does not describe the search procedures that were used in the literature review; • Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and, • Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

36. Research Design • Research design deals with decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. Thus, a research design is the plan for research. It provides guidelines which direct the researcher towards solving the research problem and it may vary depending on the nature of the problem being studied (Akuezuilo and Agu, 2002:50). Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

37. Meaning of Research Design Contd • Cooper and Schindler (2001) define research design as the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the inquirer in the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices. In other words, a research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

38. Characteristics of Research Design • It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem. • It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data. • It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

39. Functions of Research Design • It provides a researcher with a blue print for studying research problems. • It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. • It provides the boundaries of research activity and enables the investigator to channel his energies in specific direction. • It enables the investigator to anticipate potential problems in the implementation of the study. • It helps to provide some estimate of the cost of the research, possible measurement problems and the optimal allocation of resources. • It helps in research proposals to demonstrate diagrammatically, how the variable of the proposed research will be observed, controlled, or manipulated to generate necessary primary data for a study. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

40. Types of Research Design • Historical • Descriptive (survey, correlational, case studies, expo facto and development studies) • Experimental (True and Quasi-experimental) Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

41. Sample and Sampling Techniques Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

42. Definition of Sampling This is the process of selecting a unit of a whole to form the basis for a study. It can assume varied forms and dimensions Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

43. Need for Sampling • Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than a census study and produces results at a relatively faster speed. • Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally conducted by trained and experienced investigators. • Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members. • Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under study. • Sampling usually enables researchers to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the population. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

44. Steps in sample design • Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. • Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting a sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one like a local government area, community, etc., or a social unit such as family, association, church, etc., or even an individual. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

45. Steps in sample design contd • Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible. • Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This is a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

46. Steps to sample design contd • Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample. • Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

47. Characteristics of a good Sample Design • Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. • Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error. • Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. • Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. • Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

48. Types of Sample Design • Probability (based on random selection of units of a universe or population. It grants all units equal opportunities of being selected to be studied) • Non-Probability is based on the choice and judgment of the researcher. It thus does not allow all units/items of the population equal chances of being selected for the study Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

49. Non-probability Sampling techniques • Quota • Convenience • Expert • Snowball Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu

50. Probability Sampling Techniques • Random • Systematic • Stratified • Cluster • Multi-stage • Proportional • Sequential Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu