Chapter 10 Asia in the Early Modern Era

1. Chapter 10 Asia in the Early Modern Era

2. Southeast Asia 500 C.E.-1200C.E. 1. Although northern Vietnam was brought under Chinese control in 111 B.C.E., its trade and religion came primarily from India. Trade from Rome to India was extended east across the Indian Ocean to Malaya where the goods were transhipped throughout Southeast Asia and became part of the trading network including Srivijaya, Sailendra, and Champa. Srivijaya, with its capital at the deep water port of Palembang, promoted commercial relations between China and the Indian Ocean due to the control of the trade route through the Strait of Malacca. In 1025 Srivijaya was attacked and defeated by the Indian kingdom of Chola. Although Srivijaya recovered, it could not regain its dominance of the area in part because commerce increasingly flowed through the Strait of Sunda into the Indian Ocean. This benefited the Javanese kingdom of Sailendra. In the late thirteenth century Srivijaya was destroyed by the kingdom of Singhassari, the successor to Sailendra. By the mid-fourteenth century, most of the archipelago and parts of the mainland had been brought under the single control of Majapahit. 2. The Vietnamese came from the coastal plains of southern China and occupied the delta of the Red River. A strong sense of national identity had developed in North Vietnam by the time of the collapse of the Tang dynasty in 907. By 939, Vietnam, calling itself Dai Viet, achieved its independence though Chinese influence remained in Confucian institutions and political structure. As Dai Viet expanded south it came into conflict with Champa. In part, their struggle was rooted in Cham raids into the Red River delta. At times, Champa was victorious but by 1471 the region was under Dai Viet control. The Vietnamese continued their push south until reaching the Gulf of Siam in the eighteenth century. The Die Viet march south nevertheless continued until the Gulf of Siam was reached by the seventeenth century. China, however, never lost its desire to bring the Red River delta of north Vietnam into the empire. Chinese rule was established by the Ming in 1408 but by 1428 the Vietnamese had expelled them. 3. The kingdom of Champa was made up of a seafaring people with linguistic and cultural ties to Indianized Indonesia. It consisted of decentralized coastal villages that specialized in piracy as well as maritime trade with ties to the Islamic commercial network. Over the centuries, Champa became embroiled with Vietnam. 4. Located on the lower Mekong River was the kingdom of Funan. It is the first historically confirmed state in Southeast Asia, existing at least prior to the third century C.E. It was an agricultural and trading society possessing contacts with India and China. Funan dominated regional trade as the major land route between the Gulf of Thailand and the Bay of Bengal passed through the Funan controlled Isthmus of Kra. The discovery of Roman coins at Oc Eo would suggest at least an indirect contact with Rome. Moreover, there were clearly Indian influences in society. In the early ninth century, Funan gave way to the emerging kingdom of Anghor that dominated what is today northwestern Cambodia (Kampuchia) from the early ninth to fifteenth centuries. The Cambodian kings built a number of cities including their capital Anghor Thom. It covered about four square miles and may have had a population of one million. A walled city, it contained temples including the central one dedicated to Buddha and the king. Others were built to honor the Hindu gods. The Angkor civilization reached its peak in the twelfth century. 5. In the eighth century the Thais united into a confederacy which lasted until the attack of the Mongols in 1253. By the eleventh or twelfth century the Thai, originating in southwestern China, had pushed south eventually leading to conflict with Anghor. In 1432 they conquered the capital Angkor Thom but soon abandoned it for a new capital at Ayuthaya to the west. Significantly, the Thai absorbed Indian religious and political institutions, especially Theravada Buddhism. 5. The Burmese began migrating south from the highlands of Tibet into Nan Chao about the seventh century C.E. By the eleventh century they had found the kingdom of Pagan. It expanded south down the Malay peninsula and became active in the maritime trade. Question: 1. What was the relationship between China, India and Southeast Asia? Southeast Asia 500 C.E.-1200 C.E.

3. Colonization of Southeast Asia • Mongol successes on the mainland in late 13th century • Mongol failures to dominate the Southeast Asia islands • Political fragmentation and products made the islands easy prey • Portuguese outposts • Ceylon, Sunde Islands, Malacca, Taiwan, and Macao • Spanish Asian Empire • Philippines • Trade

4. Dutch church in Malacca. Built by Dutch in the seventeenth century after seizing the city from the Portuguese

5. Dutch Asian Empire • Expel the English from East Asia, 1622 • Gran Malacca occupied 1640 • Expel Portuguese from Ceylon and East Indies • Headquarters at Batavia (Jakarta) on Java • English Asian Empire • Seize Dutch possession in 1795-1811 • Return of Dutch East India, 1816 • Purchase of Singapore, 1819

6. The Mughal Empire

7. Moghul Conquest and Rule • Babur driven to Afghanistan, 1504 • Invasion of India, 1524 • Battle of Panipat, 1526 • Akbar • Regains Delhi, Agra, Hindustan, and Afghanistan lost by his father • Religious problems • Moghul Empire disintegrates after 1760 • Moghul Government • Absolute and commander of the military • Use of foreign officials, Hindus • Agricultural problems

8. Society and Economy • Extravagance of the rulers • Pilgrimages to shrines • Village agriculture • Slavery • Artisans • Women • Religion • Three-fourths of Moghul India were Hindus • Growth of Muslim population • Most were Sunnis, concentrated in the northwest • Akbar synthesized Hinduism and Islam, proclaim Divine Faith • Aurengzeb ends religious tolerance and persecuted Hindus

9. Sikhism • Guru Nanak • Discards caste or creed • Golden Temple at Amritsar • Guru Arjan executed by Jahangir in 1606, Sikhs become the enemy of Islam • Moghul Architecture and Painting • Indo-Islamic culture • Humayun, Akbar, and Shah Jahan great builders • Fusion of Sino-Persian, Muslim, and Hindo-Buddhism art into Moghal and Rajput schools

10. Humayun’s tomb at Agra

11. Royal reception hall at Red Fort in Agra

12. China and Its Enemies During the Late Ming Era 1. One of the chief threats to the Ming was the Mongols. Overthrown is 1368 by a massive peasant uprising, the Mongols broke up into eastern1 western, and southern tribes. Although the Ming made alliances with the southern tribes (north of the GreatWall), all was not always at peace. In 1449 an ill-prepared expedition against the Mongols ended in military disaster and the capture of the emperor who remained a prisoner for seven years. In 1550 the Mongols overran Beijing. 2. During the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, Japanese warlords and Chinese pirates associated with them began raiding the Korean and northeastern China coasts. They eventually extended their operations to the southern Chinese coast in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The most serious Japanese threat came with invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597-98. Although the Japanese would eventually withdraw, the Ming had been considerably weakened the imperial treasury. 3. Another threat to the Ming was the Manchu (Jurchen) from Manchuria. In the early seventeenth century they built a strong army and gained the allegiance of the Mongols and other tribes. In the meantime, the Ming government floundered while droughts led to banditry and revolt in the provinces. The decay prepared the way for the rebels to occupy Beijing in 1644. With the aid of Ming military commanders who had deserted, the Manchu took advantage of the conditions to conquer Beijing for themselves. A new dynasty was proclaimed with the reigning title of Qing. Questions: 1. What was the weakness of China that allowed its enemies to be successful in assaulting its territory? 2. What was the role of the Manchu in the weakening of China? China and Its Enemies during the Late Ming Era

13. Models of traditional Chinese single-mast sailing vessels

14. Ming Dynasty • Chu Yuan-chang proclaims himself Emperor Hung-wu founder of the Ming (brilliant) • Expulsion of Mongols and expansion • Emperor Yung-lo (Prince of Yen) • Expansion • Admiral Cheng Ho • Peace and public works projects • Autocratic Government and Conservative Military • Disappearance of hereditary, nobility, and great families • Dominance of a nonhereditary civil service • Legacy of absolutist Mongol rule • 15 provinces divided into counties • Eunuchs

15. Economy, Society, and Education • Population decline, especially due to the Mongols in the north and the bubonic plague • Need to stimulate agricultural production through hydraulic engineering and printing manuals • Silk production • Products introduced from the Americas • Urban growth • Manufacturing • Growth of merchant class • Public education, improved examination system • Culture and Arts • Drama, theater, the novel

16. The Qing Empire in the Eighteenth Century 1. The Qing dynasty from 1644 to 1912 generally continued the political and social order of the previous Ming dynasty. The ruling Manchus originated in Manchuria from which the unifier of the Manchu state, Nurhachi, seized part of the Liaotung peninsula and made Mukden his capital in 625. Nurhachi's successor continued the expansion as attacks were made in 1629, 1632, and 1634 north of the Great Wall as Inner Mongolia and the Amur region were acquired. In 1637 Korea was made a vassal state. Beijing, and thus the Chinese throne, fell to the Manchus in 1644. Previously, in 1637 the dynasty renamed itself Qing, meaning "Pure." 2. The last Ming prince was chased into Burma where he was killed in 1662. Shortly thereafter, three generals who had aided the Manchus in subduing south China revolted. Although aided by pirates on Taiwan, the revolt was quelled in 1681. Two years later Taiwan was captured and made part of China. It was also in 1681 that Yunnan was occupied by imperial armies. 3. In the 1680s military colonies were established in Manchuria for the purpose of driving out Russian traders, trappers, and adventurers who had reached the Amur River in northern Manchuria by the 1660s. Success led to the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 that excluded Russia from Manchuria but did allow Russian caravans to visit Beijing. 4. In western China the Manchus were faced with the Russians, western Mongols, and Tibet. War was waged against the Mongols, Tibet was invaded, and in 1727 a treaty was signed with Russia, which confirmed Chinese rule over Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang in return for formal trading rights and permanent residence for Russian merchants and missionaries in Beijing. Significantly, modern China continues to claim the Manchu conquests as the limit of its legitimate borders. 5. Tributary relations were established with Korea, Burma, Vietnam, Laos, Nepal, and Siam. 6. After nearly a century of struggle, the Qing gained control of Xinjiang by the 1750s that led to a protectorate over Tibet in 1750. 7. The Manchus dealt with foreigners by continuing to keep them restricted to Macao, just south of the Pearl River estuary. The English established their first trading post at Canton in 1699. To limit contacts between the Europeans and Chinese, the Qing eventually confined the Europeans to the small island of Shamian on the Pearl River just outside Canton's city walls. They were permitted to reside there only from October through March. Question: 1. How did the Qing expand their empire and deal with outsiders? The Qing Empire in the Eighteenth Century

17. Contacts with the Europeans • Portuguese arrive at Canton, 1515 • Macao established, 1557 • Dutch in Taiwan • Catholic missionaries, Jesuits • The Ch’ing (Manchu) Dynasty • Nomadic Manchus expand under Nurhachi and his son Abahai • Compulsory military service • Use of Chinese to fill bureaucracy • Manchus capture Peking and the throne, 1664 • K’ang-hai • Intellectual • All China under Manchu authority

18. Government • Retain three-tier examination system • Dyarchy of Manchu and Chinese ministers and vice-ministers • Success of Mongols because they embraced Chinese culture, values, and fair government • Dynasty sustained by the army • No advances in military technology • Population boom, government fails to adjust • Missionaries • Jesuit influence • Franciscans and Dominicans bring decline of Christian influence • Rites Controversy • Emperor restricts missionaries

19. Foreign Relations Based on Tribute • Denial of other nation’s equality with China • Russia • Quarantine Approach to Trade • Macao and Canton • Kowtows • Culture and the Arts • Jesuits artists introduce new forms and techniques • Complete Writings of the Four Treasuries • Poetry, novels, theater, and opera • Lunar calendar and festivals

20. Japan and Its Neighbors 1.The Yamato state, located on the Yamato plain in central Honshu near Koyoto, was established by the fifth century. It soon conquered the southern island of Kyushu and Kanto east of the Yamato plain. A foothold was also established in Korea that probably facilitated the movement of people from Korea to Japan until the early ninth century. The Japanese hold in South Korea was eliminated in 562. The result of this contact was the penetration of Chinese and Buddhist ideas into Japan. 3. In 710 a new capital was established at Nara on the eastern edge of the Yamato plain. It was laid out on the same checkerboard pattern. The city was roughly three miles by two and two-thirds miles. With no enemies, there were no walls. Another capital was built in 794 at Heian on the Kyoto plain. Again the city was laid out in a checkerboard pattern, three miles by three and a third miles. Like Nara, it was without walls. It became the modern city of Kyoto and remained the capital until 1868. 4. The decline of power at Heian (794-1185) resulted in aristocrats increasingly acting independently and resorting to military force to protect their interests. Civil war was almost constant until the twelfth century. By 1185 Minamoto Yoritomo had defeated his rivals and within four years had all of Japan under his military control. To strengthen the state, Yoritomo created a centralized government under a powerful military leader called shogun (general). The shogun system will last until the last half of the nineteenth century. 5. In 1266 the Mongol emperor Khubilai Khan demanded tribute from Japan. When Japan refused, the khan's army invaded in 1274 with a force of over 30,000 but was compelled to retreat. In 1281 the khan's army of 150,000 landed on the northern coast of the southwestern island and Kyushu. Again the Mongols failed as a typhoon destroyed the Mongol fleet. 3. The Korean state was controlled by North China by the early third century B.C.E. Korea remained colonized until the fourth century when the Chinese were expelled in the fourth century. Three native kingdoms were formed: Koguryo in the north, Paekchein the southwest, andSillain the southeast. Chinese influences, however, continued as repeated waves of Chinese refugees from the Han dynasty poured into Korea. The expansion of Koguryo and consolidation of Paekche brought the two to almost three centuries of war. In the sixth century Silla allied with Paekche and then turned on its ally. The reunification of China by the Sui dynasty was followed by an attack on Koguryo in 598, and three more expeditions in 612-614. All ended in disaster and contributed to the collapse of the Sui. The successor Tang dynasty had no better luck in 644 and 659. In 660 with the aid of Silla, Paekche was destroyed. Three years later a Japanese expedition to aid Paekche was repulsed. Meanwhile the Tang and Sillaattacked Koguryo and brought it to an end in 668. Within a decade the Tang forces were expelled by the Sillafrom most of Korea and it was unified. Silla became a tributary to the Tang but remained autonomous. By the middle of the eighth century, unification began to disintegrate. In 780 after more than a decade of revolts, theSillaking was assassinated and over the next century and a half a series of briefly reigning kings assumed the throne. Questions: 1. How was Japan unified into a single state? What was the real source of power? 2. What was the relationship between China and Japan 3. How was Korea unified? Japan and its Neighbors

21. Tokugawa Japan 1. The national unification of Japan began in the middle of the sixteenth century under Oda Nobunaga (1568-1582), a samurai of the lesser daimyo. By 1559 he controlled the province of Owari (10) and in 1568 seized Kyoto, the capital city. He drove the shogun out of Kyoto in 1573, thus becoming virtual ruler of central Japan. To this was added western Japan under the brilliant general Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Also added were eastern and northern Japan once the fortress of Odawara in southern Honshu fell. 2. In 1582 Nobunaga was murdered while his armies were fighting the Mori (21) at the western end of Honshu. Hideyoshi (1582-1598) soon managed to establish his control over Nobunaga's coalition of daimyo in central Japan. In 1585 the southern island of Shikoku was subdued. Tokugawa Ieyasu in the east accepted vassalage to Hideyoshi in 1586 while the Shimazu (26) did the same in the extreme south. Meanwhile, the Date (5) and others in the north submitted to Hideyoshi. By 1590, Japan was reunited politically. When Hideyoshi died in 1598 a regency was established for his infant son. Tokugawa Ieyasu (1598-1616), who controlled vast territories around Edo (Tokyo), eliminated the boy and in 1600 at Sekigahara smashed a coalition of daimyo. 3. Hideyoshi had eyes beyond Japan. With an objective of China, passage was sought through Korea. When that was refused, a Japanese invasion force entered in 1592. Using firearms, Korea was quickly overrun but the Japanese had to withdraw south when faced by massive Chinese Armies. This was renewed in 1697 but when Hideyoshi died the following year, the Japanese armies withdrew. 4. In 1549 the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier landed at Kagoshima. By 1600, there were some 300,000 baptized Catholics, most of which were found on southern Kyushu. In 1615 Christian samurai supported Ieyasu's enemies at the battle of Osaka. Thirty thousand peasants in heavily Catholic northern Kyushu revolted in 1637 contributing to the ruthless repression of the Christians after 1639. Foreign priests were expelled or tortured, and thousands of Japanese Christians suffered crucifixion. At the same time, all foreigners were expelled except the Dutch who aided the Japanese government against the Christians (Catholics) by providing cannons. As a reward, the Dutch could stay but their factory station was removed in 1641 to the 2100 square foot island of Deshima in Nagasaki harbor. One ship a year was permitted by the Japanese. Questions: 1. What role did the daimyo play in the unification of Japan? 2. What was the relationship between the Japanese government and the Dutch? Tokugawa Japan

22. Osaka Castle. Last headquarters of son of Hideyoshi Toyotomi, it was seized by forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1615 on the latter ascent to the shogunate

23. Japan • Ashikaga shogunate, 1338-1573 • Civil wars • Expanding economy • Ashikaga shoguns recognize Ming emperors as overlords • Learned firearms from the Europeans • Hideyoshi Toyotomi • Overan Korea, 1592, but turned back by the Ming army • Tokugawa Ieyosu • One of five regents for Hideyoshi’s son • Shogun, 1603 • Family will remain shoguns until 1868 • Retain one quarter of all arable land • Expel most foreigners, banned Christianity • Retires in 1605 for his son

24. Isolation • Francis Xavier introduces Christianity • Missionaries welcomed as source of European goods • Large numbers of converts create fears of European expansion • Christianity banned in 1587, enforced in 1612 • Japanese forced to renounce Christianity and missionaries exiled or executed • Isolation

25. Feudalism • Rigid class structure • Daimyo and samurai retainers • Samurai from soldiers to administrators • Education for samurai • Framers • Paid 40-60% of rice crop in taxes • Urban culture dominated by well-off merchants • Extensive publishing • Strain on the late Tokugawa as Japan outgrew feudalism