Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West and The Industrial Revolution

1. Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West and The Industrial Revolution Chapters 24-25

2. Peninsulares / Creoles / Mulattos • Peninsulares – Spanish & Portuguese officials who lived temporarily in Latin America for political & economic gain. Peninsulares were at the top of the Latin American class structure, holding all important positions. • Creoles – Descendants of Europeans who were born in Latin America. Creoles were the leaders of Latin American revolutions, favoring enlightenment ideals and opposing European domination of their trade. • Mulattos – People of mixed European and African descent who made up the lowest class in Latin American society. • By the end of the 18th century, the political ideals stemming from the revolution in North America put European control of Latin America in peril. Latin America’s social class structure played a big role in how the 19th century revolutions occurred and what they achieved. Social classes divided colonial Latin America. Peninsulares were Spanish and Portuguese officials who resided temporarily in Latin America for political and economic gain. At the top of the class structure, peninsulares dominated Latin America. They held all important positions. Creoles controlled land and business and resented the peninsulares. The peninsulares regarded the creoles as second-class citizens. Mestizos were the largest group. They worked as servants or laborers.

3. Simon Bolivar • A wealthy Venezuelan Creole, Bolivar led a volunteer army of revolutionaries in a struggle for independence from Spain from 1811 to 1822. Bolivar is revered as the “George Washington of South America”. He hoped to unite the Spanish colonies of South America into a single country called Grand Colombia but was unable to do so as a result of geographic and political obstacles. • Even though they could not hold high public office, creoles were the least oppressed of those born in Latin-America. They were also the best educated. In fact, many wealthy young creoles traveled to Europe for their education. In Europe, they read about and adopted Enlightenment ideas. When they returned to Latin America, they brought ideas of revolution with them. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808 triggered revolts in the Spanish colonies. Removing Spain’s King Ferdinand VII, Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain. Many creoles might have supported a Spanish king. However, they felt no loyalty to a king imposed by the French. Creoles, recalling Locke’s idea of the consent of the governed, argued that when the real king was removed, power shifted to the people. In 1810, rebellion broke out in several parts of Latin America. • Simon Bolivar’s native Venezuela declared its independence from Spain in 1811. But the struggle for independence had only begun. Bolivar’s volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twice Bolivar had to go into exile. A turning point came in August 1819. Bolivar led over 2,000 soldiers on a daring march through the Andes into what is now Colombia. Coming from this direction, he took the Spanish army in Bogota completely by surprise and won a decisive victory. By 1821, Bolivar had won Venezuela’s independence. He then marched south into Ecuador. In Ecuador, Bolivar finally met Jose de San Martin. Together they would decide the future of the Latin American revolutionary movement.

4. Jose de San Martin • Though native to Argentina, Martin had spent most of his life serving in the Spanish army in Europe. He returned to South America following Napoleon’s conquest of Spain, leading revolutionary forces to oust European armies from Argentina, Chile, and finally, in 1824, Peru. • Jose de San Martin believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any South American nation was to be free. Bolivar began the struggle for independence in Venezuela in 1810. He then went on to lead revolts in New Granada (Colombia) and Ecuador. By 1810, the forces of San Martin had liberated Argentina from Spanish authority. In January 1817, San Martin led his fortress over the Andes to attack the Spanish in Chile. The journey was an amazing feat, 2/3 of the pack mules and horses died during the trip. Soldiers suffered from lack of oxygen and severe cold while crossing mountain passes. The Andes mountains were more than two miles above sea level. • The arrival of San Martin’s forces in Chile completely surprised the Spaniards. Spanish forces were badly defeated at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817. In 1821 San Martin moved on to Lima, Peru, the center of Spanish authority. San Martin was convinced that he could not complete the liberation of Peru alone. He welcomed the arrival of Simon Bolivar and his forces. Bolivar, the “Liberator of Venezuela,” took on the task of crushing the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. • By the end of 1824, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile had all become free of Spain. Earlier, in 1822, the prince regent of Brazil had declared Brazil’s independence from Portugal. The Central American states had become independent in 1823. In 1823 and 1839, they divided into five republics: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua.

5. Miguel Hidalgo / Jose Maria Morelos • Miguel Hidalgo – “The Father of Mexico”; Roman Catholic Priest who founded the Mexican Independence movement in 1810. Hidalgo organized an army of mostly poor Mexicans which succeeded in winning early victories but was defeated by a more well-armed colonial army from Mexico City. Hidalgo was executed by firing squad in 1811. • Jose Maria Morelos – A Catholic Priest and associate of Hidalgo, Morelos replaced Hidalgo as the leader of the revolutionary movement in Mexico. Morelos was defeated by a creole army led by Augustin Iturbide in 1815. Ironically, 6 years later Iturbide led Mexico to achieve its Independence from Spain in 1821. • Beginning in 1810, Mexico, too, experienced a revolt. The first real hero of Mexican independence was Miguel Hidalgo. A parish priest, Hidalgo lived in a village about 100 miles from Mexico City. Hidalgo had studied the French Revolution. He aroused the local Native Americans and mestizos to free themselves from the Spanish. On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo led this ill-equipped army of thousands of Native Americans and mestizos in an attack against the Spaniards. He was an inexperienced military leader, however, and his forces were soon crushed. A military court sentenced Hidalgo to death. However, his memory lives on. In fact, September 16, the first day of the uprising, is Mexico’s Independence Day. Events in Mexico took an unexpected turn in 1820, when a revolution in Spain put a liberal group in power there. Mexico’s creoles feared the loss of their privileges in the Spanish-controlled colony. So they united in support of Mexico’s independence from Spain.

6. Closure Assignment #1 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 24, Section 1: • Compare and contrast the leadership of the South American revolutions to the leadership of Mexico’s revolution. • Would creole revolutionaries tend to be democratic or authoritarian leaders? Explain. • How were events in Europe related to the revolutions in Latin America?

7. Conservative • Political philosophy based on tradition and a belief in the value of social stability which was supported by European leaders following the defeat of Napoleon; Conservatives favor obedience to political authority, support organized religion, and hate revolutions. • Eventually, the great powers adopted a principle of intervention. According to this principle, the great powers had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions in order to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones. Refusing to accept the principle, Britain argued that the great powers should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states. The other great powers, however, used military forces to crush the revolutions in Spain and Italy, as well as to restore monarchs to their thrones. • Between 1815 and 1830, conservative governments throughout Europe worked to maintain the old order. However, powerful forces of change – known as liberalism and nationalism – were also at work. Nationalism was an even more powerful force for change in the 19th century than was liberalism. Nationalism arose when people began to identify themselves as part of a community defined by a distinctive language, common institution, and customs. This community is called a nation. In earlier centuries, people’s loyalty went to a king or to their town or region. In the 19th century, people began to feel that their chief loyalty was to the nation. • Conservatism is based on tradition and a belief in the value of social stability. Most conservatives at that time favored obedience to political authority. They also believed that organized religion was crucial to keep order in society. Conservatives hated revolutions and were unwilling to accept demands from people who wanted either individual rights or representative governments. To maintain the new balance of power, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to meet at times. The purpose of these conferences was to take steps needed to maintain peace in Europe. These meetings came to be called the Concert of Europe.

8. Liberal • Political philosophy based on Enlightenment ideas which argues that people should be as free as possible from government. • Liberals had a common set of political beliefs. Chief among them was the protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of all people. These civil liberties included equality before the law and freedom of assembly, speech, and the press. Liberals believed that all these freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document such as the American Bill of Rights. Most liberals wanted religious toleration for all, as well as separation of church and state. Liberals also demanded the right of peaceful opposition to the government. They believed that a representative assembly (legislature) elected by qualified voters should make laws. • Many liberals, then, favored government ruled by a constitution, such as in a constitutional monarchy, in which a constitution regulates a king. They believed that written constitutions would guarantee the rights they sought to preserve. Liberals did not, however, believe in a democracy in which everyone had a right to vote. They thought that the right to vote and hold office should be open only to men of property. Liberalism, then, was tied to middle-class men, especially industrial middle-class men, who wanted voting rights for themselves so they could share power with the landowning classes. The liberals feared mob rule, and had little desire to let the lower class share the power. • The French monarchy was finally overthrown in 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans set up a provisional, or temporary, government. The republicans were people who wished France to be a republic – a government in which leaders are elected. The provisional government called for the election of representatives to a Constituent Assembly that would draw up a new constitution. Election was to be by a universal male suffrage. Closure Question #1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause?

9. Liberalism Cartoon…

10. Radical • Political philosophy developed in the early 1800s which favors drastic change to extend democracy to all people. Radicals believed that governments should practice the ideals of the French Revolution – liberty, equality, and brotherhood. • In the first half of the 19th century, nationalism found a strong ally in liberalism. Most liberals believed that freedom could only be possible in people who ruled themselves. Each group of people should have its own state. No state should attempt to dominate another state. The association with liberalism meant that nationalism had a wider scope. Beginning in 1830, the forces of change – liberalism and nationalism – began to break through the conservative domination of Europe. In France, liberals overthrew the Bourbon monarch Charles X in 1830 and established a constitutional monarchy. Political support for the new monarch, Louis Philippe, a cousin of Charles X, came from the upper-middle class. • In the same year, 1830, 3 more revolutions occurred. Nationalism was the chief force in all 3 of them. Belgium, which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an Independent state. In Poland and Italy, which were both ruled by foreign powers, efforts to break free were less successful. Russians crushed the Polish attempt to establish an independent Polish nation. Meanwhile Austrian troops marched south and put down revolts in a number of Italian states. • The conservative order still dominated much of Europe as the midpoint of the 19th century approached. However, the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. These forces of change erupted once more in the revolutions of 1848. Revolution in France once again sparked revolution in other countries. Severe economic problems beginning in 1846 brought untold hardship in France to the lower-middle class, workers, and peasants. At the same time, members of the middle class clamored for the right to vote. The government of Louis Philippe refused to make changes, and opposition grew. Closure Question #1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause?

11. Nationalism • The belief that people’s greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a common culture and history. • Nationalism did not become a popular force for change until the French Revolution. From then on, nationalists came to believe that each nationality should have its own government. Thus, the Germans, who were separated into many principalities, wanted national unity in a German nation-state with one central government. Subject peoples, such as the Hungarians, wanted the right to establish their own governments rather than be subject to the Austrian empire. Nationalism was a threat to the existing political order. A united Germany, for example, would upset the balance of power set up at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. At the same time, an independent Hungarian state would mean the breakup of the Austrian Empire. • Great Britain managed to avoid the revolutionary upheavals of the first half of the 19th century. In 1815, aristocratic landowning classes, which dominated both houses of Parliament, governed Great Britain. In 1832, Parliament passed a bill that increased the number of male voters. The new voters were chiefly members of the industrial middle class. By giving the industrial middle class an interest in ruling, Britain avoided revolution in 1848. In the 1850s and 1860s, Parliament continued to make social and political reforms that helped the country to remain stable. However, despite reforms, Britain saw a rising Irish nationalist movement demanding increased Irish control over Irish internal affairs. Another reason for Britain’s stability was its continuing economic growth. By 1850, real wages of workers rose significantly, enabling the working classes to share the prosperity. • In France, events after the revolution of 1848 moved toward the restoration of the monarchy. In 1848, Louis-Napoleon returned to the people to ask for the restoration of the empire. In this plebiscite, 97% responded with a yes vote. On December 2, 1852, Louis-Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III, Emperor of France. The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian. As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government, because the members of the group were elected by universal male suffrage for 6-year terms. However, they could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget. Closure Question #1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause?

12. Nation-State • Government of a region by people who share a common culture and history. Nation-states defend the territory and way of life of the people, representing the nation to the rest of the world. • A multinational state is a collection of different peoples living in the same country. The Austrian Empire included Germans, Czechs, Magyars (Hungarians), Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, Ruthenians (Ukranians), and Italians. Prague was a major city populated by the Czech peoples but ruled by Austria; In 1848 Czechs attempted to revolt against Austria to establish an independent nation but were defeated by the Austrians. • The Austrian Empire had many problems. Only the German-speaking Hapsburg dynasty held the empire together. The Germans , though only a quarter of the population, played a leading role in governing the Austrian Empire. In March 1848, demonstrations erupted in the major cities. To calm the demonstrators, the Hapsburg court dismissed Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister, who fled to England. In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control of the capital and demanded a liberal constitution. To appease the revolutionaries, the government gave Hungary its own legislature. In Bohemia, the Czechs clamored for their own government. • Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the revolutionaries but were determined to reestablish their control over the empire. In June 1848, Austrian military forces crushed the Czech rebels in Prague. By the end of October, the rebels in Vienna had been defeated as well. With the help of a Russian army of 140,000 men, the Hungarian revolutionaries were finally subdued in 1849. The revolutions in the Austrian Empire had failed. • In 1848, a revolt broke out against the Austrians in Lombardy and Venetia Italy. Revolutionaries in other Italian states also took up arms and sought to create liberal constitutions and a unified Italy. By 1849, however, the Austrians had reestablished complete control over Lombardy and Venetia. The old order also prevailed in the rest of Italy. Throughout Europe in 1848, popular revolts started upheavals that had led to liberal constitutions and liberal governments. However, moderate liberals and more radical revolutionaries were soon divided over their goals and so conservative rule was reestablished.

13. The Balkans • Geographic region along the eastern Mediterranean Sea which includes all or part of present-day Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia. The entire region had been controlled by the Ottoman Empire; however, beginning in 1821 nationalist movements in the Balkans sparked violence. • The first people to win self-rule during the early 1800s were the Greeks. For centuries, Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire. Greeks, however, had kept alive the memory of their ancient history and culture. Spurred on by the nationalist spirit, they demanded independence and rebelled against the Ottoman Turks in 1821. The most powerful European governments opposed revolution. However, the cause of Greek independence was popular with people around the world. Russians, for example, felt a connection to Greek Orthodox Christians, who were ruled by the Muslim Ottomans. Educated Europeans and Americans loved and respected ancient Greek culture. • Eventually, as popular support for Greece grew, the powerful nations of Europe took the side of the Greeks. In 1827, a combined British, French, and Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino. In 1830, Britain, France, and Russia signed a treaty guaranteeing an independent kingdom of Greece. By the 1830s, the old order, carefully arranged at the Congress of Vienna, was breaking down. Revolutionary zeal swept across Europe. Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe were openly revolting against conservative governments. Nationalist riots broke out against Dutch rule in the Belgian city of Brussels. In October 1830, the Belgians declared their independence from Dutch control. In Italy, nationalists worked to unite the many separate states on the Italian peninsula. Some were independent. Others were ruled by Austria, or by the pope. Eventually, Prince Metternich sent Austrian troops to restore order in Italy.

14. Louis-Napoleon • Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte who was elected President of the French Second Republic in 1848. In 1852 he took the title of Emperor Napoleon III with popular support. As France’s emperor, Louis-Napoleon built railroads, encouraged industrialization, and promoted ambitious public works programs. Gradually, as a result of these changes, unemployment decrease and France experienced real prosperity. • In 1830, France’s King Charles X tried to stage a return to absolute monarchy. The attempt sparked riots that forced Charles to flee to Great Britain. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, who had long supported liberal reforms in France. However, in 1848, after a reign of almost 18 years, Louis-Philippe fell from popular favor. Once again, a Paris mob overturned a monarchy and established a republic. The provisional government in France also set up national workshops to provide work for the unemployed. From March to June, the number of unemployed enrolled in the national workshops rose from about 66,000 to almost 120,000. This emptied the treasury and frightened the moderates, who reacted by closing the workshop on June 21st, 1848. The workers refused to accept this decision and poured into the streets. In four days of bitter and bloody fighting, government forces crushed the working-class revolt. Thousands were killed and thousands more were sent to the French prison colony of Algeria in northern Africa. • The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, set up a republic called the Second Republic. The Second Republic had a single legislature by universal male suffrage. A president, also chosen by universal male suffrage, served for four years. In the elections for the presidency in December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (called Louis-Napoleon), the nephew of the famous French ruler, won a resounding victory. Closure Question #2: Why did some liberals disapprove of the way Louis-Napoleon ruled France after the uprisings of 1848?

15. Alexander II • Czar of Russia during the mid to late 1800s who made reforms to Russian society, such as emancipation (freedom) for serfs and providing land for peasants by buying it from landlords. • Nationalism, a major force in 19th century Europe, presented special problems for the Austrian Empire. That was because the empire contained so many different ethnic groups, and many were campaigning for independence. After the Hapsburg rulers crushed the revolutions of 1848 and 1849, they restored centralized, autocratic government to the empire. Austria’s defeat at the hands of the Prussians in 1866, however, forced the Austrians to make concessions to the fiercely nationalist Hungarians. The result was the compromise of 1867, which created a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each of these two components had its own constitution, its own legislature, its own government bureaucracy, and its own capital; Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary. • In 1856 the Russians suffered a humiliating defeat in the Crimean War. Even staunch conservatives realized that Russia was falling hopelessly behind the western European powers. Serfdom, the largest problem in czarist Russia, was a complicated issue that affected the economic, social, and political future of Russia. On March 3, 1861, Czar Alexander II issued an emancipation edict, freeing all serfs in Russia. Alexander II attempted other reforms as well, but he soon found that he could please no one. Reformers wanted more changes and a faster pace for change. Conservatives thought that the czar was trying to destroy the basic institutions of Russian society. • A group of radicals assassinated Alexander II in 1881. His son, Alexander III, became the successor to the throne. Alexander III turned against reform and returned to the old methods of repression. Budapest was the capital city of Hungary; In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Empire was split into two separate constitutional governments (Austria and Hungary) but under one monarch, Francis Joseph. Closure Question #3: Why did Alexander III of Russia turn against the reforms of his father? (At least 1 sentence)

16. Closure Assignment #2 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 24, Section 2: • Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? • Why did some liberals disapprove of the way Louis-Napoleon ruled France after the uprisings of 1848? • Why did Alexander III of Russia turn against the reforms of his father? (At least 1 sentence)

17. Russification • The goal of the Romanov Dynasty beginning in the 1860s to force Russian culture on all the ethnic groups within the Russian Empire. School instruction was required to be entirely in Russian, even in the primary grades, and conversion to the Eastern Orthodox Church was encouraged. This policy actually strengthened ethnic nationalist feelings and helped to disunify Russia. • During the 1800s, nationalism fueled efforts to build nation-states. Nationalists were not loyal to kings, but to their people – to those who shared common bonds. Nationalism believed that people of a single “nationality”, or ancestry, should unite under a single government. However, people who wanted to restore the old order from before the French Revolution saw nationalism as a force for disunity. Gradually, authoritarian rulers began to see that nationalism could also unify masses of people. They soon began to use nationalist feelings for their own purposes. They built nation-states in areas where they remained firmly in control. • Three aging empires – The Austrian Empire of the Hapsburgs, the Russian Empire of the Romanovs, and the Ottoman Empire of the Turks – contained a mixture of ethnic groups. Control of land and ethnic groups moved back and fort between these empires, depending on victories or defeats in war and on royal marriages. When nationalism emerged in the 19th century, ethnic unrest threatened and eventually toppled these empires. In addition to the Russians themselves, the czar ruled over 22 million Ukrainians, 8 million Poles, and smaller numbers of Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Jews, Romanians, Georgians, Armenians, Turks, and others. Each group had its own culture. The weakened czarist empire finally could not withstand the double shock of World War I and the communist revolution. The last Romanov czar gave up his power in 1917. Closure Question #1: How can nationalism be both a unifying and a disunifying force? (At least 1 sentence)

18. Camillodi Cavour • Prime minister to King Victor Emmanuel II of the Italian province of Sardinia. A cunning statesman, Cavour used skillful diplomacy and well-chosen alliances to gain control of northern Italy for Sardinia. Through an alliance with Louis Napoleon of France in 1858, Sardinia succeeded in driving Austria from northern Italy. • Italian nationalists looked for leadership from the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the largest and most powerful of the Italian states. The kingdom had adopted a liberal constitution in 1848. So, to the liberal Italian middle classes, unification under Piedmont-Sardinia seemed a good plan. In 1852, Sardinia’s king, Victor Emmanuel II, named Count Camillodi Cavour as his prime minister. Cavour was a cunning statesman who worked tirelessly to expand Piedmont-Sardinia’s power. Using skillful diplomacy and well-chosen alliances he set about gaining control of northern Italy for Sardinia. • Cavour realized that the greatest roadblock to annexing northern Italy was Austria. In 1858, the French emperor Napoleon III agreed to help drive Austria out of the northern Italian provinces. Cavour then provoked a war with the Austrians. A combined French-Sardinian army succeeded in taking all of northern Italy, except Venetia. As Cavour was uniting northern Italy, he secretly started helping nationalist rebels in southern Italy. In May 1860, a small army of Italian nationalists led by a bold and visionary soldier, Giuseppe Garibaldi, captured Sicily. In battle, Garibaldi always wore a bright red shirt, as did his followers. As a result, they became known as the Red Shirts. From Sicily, Garibaldi and his forces crossed to the Italian mainland and marched north. Eventually, Garibaldi agreed to unite southern areas he had conquered with the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Cavour arranged for King Victor Emmanuel II to meet Garibaldi in Naples. “The Red One” willingly agreed to step aside and let the Sardinian king rule.

19. Giuseppe Garibaldi • Italian patriot who liberated Naples and Sicily from Austrian rule, then turned over control of Southern Italy to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia in 1870, establishing a unified, independent Italy. • Piedmont is a northern Italian state which, under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II, made an alliance with France in 1859 to revolt against Austrian control, establishing itself as an Independent nation.In 1850, Austria was still the dominant power on the Italian Peninsula. After the failure of the revolution of 1848, people began to look to the northern Italian state of Piedmont for leadership in achieving the unification of Italy. The royal house of Savoy ruled the Kingdom of Piedmont. Included in the kingdom were Piedmont, the island of Sardinia, Nice, and Savoy. The ruler of the kingdom, beginning in 1849, was King Victor Emmanuel II. • The king named Camillodi Cavour his prime minister in 1852. Cavour was a dedicated political leader. As prime minister, he pursued a policy of economic expansion to increase government revenues & enable the kingdom to equip a large army. Cavour, knew that Piedmont’s army was not strong enough to defeat the Austrians. So, he made an alliance with the French emperor Louis-Napoleon. Cavour then provoked the Austrians into declaring war in 1859. Following that conflict, a peace settlement gave Nice and Savoy to the French. Cavour had promised Nice and Savoy to the French in return for making the alliance. Lombardy, which had been under Austrian control, was given to Piedmont. Austria retained control of Venetia. Cavour’s success caused nationalists in other Italian states (Parma, Modena, and Tuscany) to overthrow their governments & join their states to Piedmont. • Meanwhile,, in southern Italy, a new leader of Italian unification had arisen. Giuseppe Garibaldi, a dedicated Italian patriot, raised an army of a thousand volunteers. They were called Red Shirts because of the color of their uniforms. A branch of the Bourbon dynasty ruled the Tow Sicilies (Sicily and Naples), and a revolt had broken out in Sicily against the king. Garibaldi’s forces landed in Sicily and, by the end of July 1860, controlled most of the island. In August, Garibaldi and his forces crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian Peninsula. Naples and the entire Kingdom of the Two Sicilies fell in early September. Garibaldi chose to turn over his conquests to Piedmont. On March 17th, 1861, a new state of Italy was proclaimed under King Victor Emmanuel II. The task of unification was not yet complete, however. Austria still had Venetia in the north; and Rome was under the control of the pope, supported by French troops.

20. Junkers • Strongly conservative members of Prussia’s wealthy landowning class who supported King Wilhelm I in his conflict with Prussian parliament. The liberal parliament refused Wilhelm money for reforms that would double the strength of the army. • Like Italy, Germany also achieved national unity in the mid-1800s. Beginning in 1815, 39 German states formed a loose grouping called the German Confederation. The Austrian Empire dominated the confederation. However, Prussia was ready to unify all the German states. The German Confederation was composed of 39 Independent German States, including Austria and Prussia; In May 1848 representatives from the separate German states held an assembly in Frankfurt to prepare a constitution for a united Germany; ultimately, however, the movement failed to gain the support needed to unify Germany in the mid-19th century. • News of the 1848 revolution in France led to upheaval in other parts of Europe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 had recognized the existence of 38 independent German states (called the German Confederation). Of these, Austria and Prussia were the two greatest powers. The other states varied in size. In 1848, cries for change led many German rulers to promise constitutions, a free press, jury trials, and other liberal reforms. In May 1848, an all-German parliament called the Frankfurt Assembly, was held to fulfill a liberal and nationalist dream – the preparation of a constitution for a new united Germany. Closure Question #2: Why did Great Britain not join the revolutions that spread through Europe in 1848? (At least 1 sentence)

21. Otto von Bismarck • Otto von Bismarck – Prime Minister of Prussia from 1860 to 1890; Bismarck increased Prussia’s military strength and led a series of successful military campaigns expanding Prussia’s borders, forming the German Empire. • Militarism is the glorification of and reliance on the military; During the mid-1800’s Prussia was well known for its militarism.After the Frankfurt Assembly failed to achieve German unification in 1848 and 1849, Germans looked to Prussia for leadership in the cause of German unification. In the course of the 19th century, Prussia had become a strong and prosperous state. Its government was authoritarian. The Prussian king had firm control over both the government and the army. Prussia was also known for its militarism. In the 1860s, King William I tried to enlarge the Prussian army. When the Prussian legislature refused to levy new taxes for the proposed military changes, William I appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von Bismarck. • Bismarck has often been seen as the foremost 19th century practitioners of realpolitik – the “politics of reality”, or politics based on practical matters rather than on theory or ethics. Bismarck openly voiced his strong dislike of anyone who opposed him. After his appointment, Bismarck ignored the legislative opposition to the military reforms. He argued instead that “Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism but for her power.” Bismarck proceeded to collect taxes and strengthen the army. From 1862 to 1866, Bismarck governed Prussia without approval of the parliament. In the meantime, he followed an active foreign policy, which soon led to war. After defeating Denmark with Austrian help in 1864, Prussia gained control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck then created friction with the Austrians and forced them into a war on June 14, 1866. The Austrians, no match for the well-disciplined Prussian army, were defeated on July 3rd.

22. Realpolitik • “The politics of reality”; Term used to describe tough power politics with no room for idealism. Otto von Bismarck used realpolitik to establish himself as the de facto military dictator of Prussia and, eventually, the unified German states. • Bismarck purposely stirred up border conflicts with Austria over Schleswig and Holstein. The tensions provoked Austria into declaring war on Prussia in 1866. This conflict was known as the Seven Weeks’ War. The Prussians used their superior training and equipment to win a devastating victory. They humiliated Austria. The Austrians lost the region of Venetia, which was given to Italy. They had to accept Prussian annexation of more German territory. With its victory in the Seven Weeks’ War, Prussia took control of northern Germany. For the first time, the eastern and western parts of the Prussian kingdom were joined. In 1867, the remaining states of the north joined the North German confederation, which Prussia dominated. • By 1867, a few southern German states remained independent of Prussian control. The majority of southern Germans were Catholics. Many in the region resisted domination by Protestant Prussia. However, Bismarck felt he could win the support of southerners if they faced a threat from outside. He reasoned that a war with France would rally the south. Bismarck was an expert at manufacturing “incidents” to gain his ends. For example, he created the impression that the French ambassador had insulted the Prussian king. The French reacted to Bismarck’s deception by declaring war on Prussia on July 19, 1870. The Prussian army immediately poured into northern France. In September 1870, the Prussian army surrounded the main French force at Sedan. Among the 83,000 French prisoners taken was Napoleon III himself. Parisians withstood a German siege until hunger forced them to surrender. Closure Question #3: Many liberals wanted government by elected parliaments. How was Bismarck’s approach to achieving his goals different? (At least 1 sentence)

23. Kaiser • Kaiser – “Emperor”, William I of Prussia was proclaimed the Kaiser of the Second German Empire on January 18th, 1871. Under the leadership of William I, Germany fought a successful war against France, known as the Franco-Prussian War, and in 1871 gained the French territories of Alsace and Lorraine. The loss of these territories left the French burning for revenge against Germany. • Prussia organized the German states north of the Main River into the North German Confederation. The southern German states, which were largely Catholic, feared Protestant Prussia. However, they also feared France, their western neighbor. As a result, they agreed to sign military alliances with Prussia for protection against France. Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany, and the growing power and military might of Prussia worried France. Bismarck was aware that France would never be content with a united German state to its east because of the potential threat to French security. • In 1870, Prussia and France became embroiled in a dispute over the candidacy of a relative of the Prussian king for the throne of Spain. Taking advantage of the situation, Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war on Prussia on July 19th, 1870. This conflict was called the Franco-Prussian War. The French proved to be no match for the better led and better organized Prussian forces. The southern German states honored their military alliances with Prussia and joined the war effort against the French. Prussian armies advanced into France. At Sedan, on September 2, 1870, an entire French army and the French ruler, Napoleon III, were captured. Paris finally surrendered on January 28, 1871. An official peace treaty was signed in May. France had to pay 5 billion francs (about $1 billion dollars) and give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German state. Even before the war had ended, the southern German states had agreed to enter the North German Confederation. On January 18, 1871, Bismarck and 600 German princes, nobles, and generals filled the hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, 12 miles outside Paris. William I of Prussia was proclaimed Kaiser.

24. Closure Assignment #3 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 24, Section 3: • How can nationalism be both a unifying and a disunifying force? (At least 1 sentence) • Why did Great Britain not join the revolutions that spread through Europe in 1848? (At least 1 sentence) • Many liberals wanted government by elected parliaments. How was Bismarck’s approach to achieving his goals different? (At least 1 sentence)

25. Romanticism • Romanticism – Intellectual movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries which emphasized feelings, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowledge. • Ludwig von Beethoven was a musician and composer who bridged the gap between classical and romantic music.The Enlightenment had stressed reason as the chief means for discovering truth. The romantics emphasized feelings, emotion and imagination. Romantics believed that emotion and sentiment were only understandable to the person experiencing them. In their novels, romantic writers created figures who were often misunderstood and rejected by society but who continued to believe in their own worth through their inner feelings. Romantics also valued individualism, the belief in the uniqueness of each person. Many romantics rebelled against middle-class conventions. Male romantics grew long hair and beards and both men and women wore outrageous clothes to express their individuality. • Many romantics had a passionate interest in the past ages, especially in the medieval era. They felt it had a mystery and interest in the soul that their own industrial age did not. Romantic architecture revived medieval styles and built castles, cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and even railway stations in a style called neo-Gothic. The British Houses of Parliament in London are a prime example of this architectural style. Romantic artists shared at least two features. First, to them, all art was a reflection of the artist’s inner feelings. A painting should mirror the artist’s vision of the world and be the instrument of the artist’s own imagination. Second, romantic artists abandoned classical reason for warmth and emotion. Eugene Delacroix was one of the most famous romantic painters from France. His paintings showed two chief characteristics: a fascination with the exotic and a passion for color. His works reflect his belief that “a painting should be a feast to the eye.” Closure Question #1: How are the movements of romanticism and realism alike and different?

26. Realism • The belief that the world should be viewed realistically; Realism began as a political and scientific concept but, by the mid 19th century, came to influence literature and art as well. • Charles Dickens was a British novelist who showed the realities of life for the poor in the early Industrial Age. Oliver Twist and David Copperfield, written by Dickens, create a vivid picture of the brutal life of London’s poor so effectively that they helped inspire reform. The literary realists of the mid-19th century rejected romanticism. They wanted to write about ordinary characters from life, not romantic heroes in exotic settings. They also tried to avoid emotional language by using precise description. They preferred novels to poems. Many literary realists combined their interest in everyday life with an examination of social issues. These artists expressed their social views through their characters. • The French author Gustave Flaubert, who was a leading novelist of the 1850s and 1860s, perfected the realist novel. His work Madame Bovary presents a critical description of small-town life in France. In Great Britain, Charles Dickens became a huge success with novels that showed the realities of life for the poor in the early Industrial Age. In art, too, realism became dominant after 1850. Realist artists sought to show the everyday life of ordinary people and the world of nature with photographic realism. The French painter Gustave Courbet was the most famous artist of the realist school. He loved to portray scenes from everyday life. His subjects were factory workers and peasants. “I have never seen either angels or goddesses, so I am not interested in painting them,” Courbet once commented. There were those who objected to Courbet’s “cult of ugliness” and who found such scenes of human misery scandalous. To Courbet, however, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly. Closure Question #1: How are the movements of romanticism and realism alike and different? Closure Question #2: How might a realist novel bring about changes in society? Describe the ways by which this might happen.

27. Secularization

28. Impressionism • Artistic movement in which artists try to show their impression of a subject or a moment in time. Fascinated by light, impressionist artists used pure, shimmering colors to capture a moment. • Louis Pasteur was a French biologist who proposed the germ theory of disease. Pasteur also developed a method to eliminate bacteria in milk which is known as Pasteurization. Secularization is indifference to or rejection of religion in the affairs of the world; As a result of scientific advances in the 19th century many people became less devoted to religious faith. Like the visual arts, the literary arts were deeply affected by romanticism and reflected a romantic interest in the past. Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, for example, a best-seller in the early 1800s, told of clashes between knights in medieval England. Many romantic writers chose medieval subjects and created stories that expressed their strong nationalism. An attraction of the exotic and unfamiliar gave rise to Gothic literature. Chilling examples are Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein in Britain and Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories of horror in the United States. • The Scientific Revolution had created a modern, rational approach to the study of the natural world. For a long time, only the educated elite understood its importance. With the Industrial Revolution, however, came a heightened interest in scientific research. By the 1830s, new discoveries in science had led to many practical benefits that affected all Europeans. Science came to have a greater and greater impact on people. In biology, the Frenchman Louis Pasteur proposed the germ theory of disease, which was crucial to the development of modern scientific medical practices. In chemistry, the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev in the 1800s classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights. In Great Britain, Michael Faraday put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electric current. Dramatic material benefits such as these led Europeans to have a growing faith in science. This faith, in turn, undermined the religious faith of many people. It is no accident that the 19th century was an age of increasing secularization. For many people, truth was now to be found in science and the concrete material existence of humans. Closure Question #3: What was the goal of impressionist painters?

29. Closure Assignment #4 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 24, Section 4: • How are the movements of romanticism and realism alike and different? • How might a realist novel bring about changes in society? Describe the ways by which this might happen. • What was the goal of impressionist painters?

30. Industrial Revolution • Term referring to the greatly increased output of machine-made goods that began in England in the middle 1700s. • The assembly line is an efficient manufacturing method pioneered by American Henry Ford in 1913; Assembly Line production places a product on a conveyor belt and has individuals at various stations along the belt responsible to attach one specific part. Mass Production is a business practice of producing large quantities of identical products which can be made quickly and cheaply. • By the 1880s, streetcars and subways powered by electricity had appeared in major European cities. Electricity transformed the factory as well. Conveyor belts, cranes, and machines could all be powered by electricity. With electric lights, factories could remain open 24 hours a day. The development of the internal-combustion engine, fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation. This engine gave rise to ocean liners with oil-fired engines, as well as to the airplane and the automobile. In 1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing plane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1919 the first regular passenger air service was established. • Industrial production grew at a rapid pace because of greatly increased sales of manufactured goods. Europeans could afford to buy more consumer products for several reasons. Wages for workers increased after 1870. In addition, prices for manufactured goods were lower because of reduced transportation costs. One of the biggest reasons for more efficient production was the assembly line. In the cities, the first department stores began to sell a new range of consumer goods. These goods – clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters, for example – were made possible by the steel and electrical industries.

31. Assembly Line

32. Enclosures Series of laws passed by British parliament in the 1700s which required landowners to fence off common lands. These laws forced many peasants to move to towns, creating a labor supply for factories. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1780s and took several decades to spread to other Western nations. Several factors contributed to make Great Britain the starting point. First, an agrarian revolution beginning in the 1700s changed agricultural practices. Expansion of farmland, good weather, improved transportation, and new crops such as the potato dramatically increased the food supply. More people could be fed at lower prices with less labor. Now even ordinary British families could use some of their income to buy manufactured goods. Second, with the increased food supply, the population grew. When Parliament passed enclosure movement laws in the 1700s, landowners fenced off common lands. This forced many peasants to move to towns, creating a labor supply for factories. The remaining farms were larger, more efficient, with increased crop yields. Third, Britain had a ready supply of money, or capital, to invest in new machines and factories. Entrepreneurs found new ways to make profits in a laissez-faire market economy, ruled by supply and demand with little government control of industry. Fourth, Britain had plentiful natural resources. The country’s rivers provided water power for the new factories. These waterways provided a means for transporting raw materials and finished products. Britain also had abundant supplies of coal and iron ore, essential in manufacturing processes. Finally, a supply of markets gave British manufacturers a ready outlet for their goods. Britain had a vast colonial empire, and British ships could transport goods anywhere in the world. Also, because of population growth and cheaper food at home, domestic markets increased. A growing demand for cotton cloth led British manufacturers to look for ways to increase production. Closure Question #1: Was the revolution in agriculture necessary to the Industrial Revolution? Explain.

33. Crop Rotation • Improved agricultural process developed during the Industrial Revolution. One year, for example, a farmer might plant a field with wheat, which exhausted soil nutrients. The next year he planted a root crop, such as turnips, to restore nutrients. • Livestock breeders improved their methods too. In the 1700s, for example, Robert Bakewell increased his mutton (sheep meat) output by allowing only his best sheep to breed. Other farmers followed Bakewells’ lead. Between 1700 and 1786, the average weight for lambs climbed from 18 to 50 pounds. As food supplies increased and living conditions improved, England’s population mushroomed. An increasing population boosted the demand for food and goods such as cloth. As farmers lost their land to large enclosed farms, many became factory workers. • By 1800, several major inventions had modernized the cotton industry. One invention led to another. In 1733, a machinist named John Kay made a shuttle that sped back and forth on wheels. This flying shuttle, a boat-shaped piece of wood to which yarn was attached, doubled the work a weaver could do in a day. Because spinners could not keep up with these speedy weavers, a cash prize attracted contestants to produce a better spinning machine. Around 1764, a textile worker named James Hargreaves invented a spinning wheel he named after his daughter. His spinning jenny allowed one spinner to work eight threads at a time. At first, textile workers operated the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny by hand. Then, Richard Arkwright invented the water frame in 1769. This machine used the waterpower from rapid streams to drive spinning wheels. In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce the spinning mule. The spinning mule made thread that was stronger, finer, and more consistent than earlier spinning machines. Run by waterpower, Edmund Cartwright’s power loom sped up weaving after its invention in 1787. Closure Question #1: Was the revolution in agriculture necessary to the Industrial Revolution? Explain.

34. Industrialization • The process of developing machine production of goods. England led the way in Industrialization, largely as a result of natural resources such as rivers for inland transportation, harbors from which merchant ships set sail, water power and coal to fuel machines, and iron ore to construct machines. • Puddling – Iron making process developed by Englishman Henry Cort which used coke, which was derived from coal, to burn away in impurities in Iron Ore. Manchester & Liverpool – In 1829 Manchester, a rich cotton-manufacturing town, was connected with Liverpool, a thriving port, by railroad, further speeding the production and sale of cotton cloth. As a result of the puddling process, the British iron industry boomed. In 1740, Britain had produced 17,000 tons of iron. After Cort’s process came into use in the 1780s, production jumped to nearly 70,000 tons. In 1852, Britain produced almost 3 million tons – more iron than the rest of the combined world produced. High-quality iron was used to build new machines, especially trains. • The factory was another important element in the Industrial Revolution. From its beginning, the factory created a new labor system. Factory owners wanted to use their new machines constantly. So, workers were forced to work in shifts to keep the machines producing at a steady rate. Early factory workers came from rural areas where they were used to periods of inactivity. Factory owners wanted workers to work without stopping. They disciplined workers to a system of regular hours and repetitive tasks. Anyone who came to work late was fined or quickly fired for misconduct, especially for drunkenness. One early industrialist said that his aim was “to make the men into machines that cannot err.” Discipline of factory workers, especially of children, was often harsh. Children were often beaten with a rod or whipped to keep them at work. • In the 18th century, more efficient means of moving resources and goods developed. Railroads were particularly important to the success of the Industrial Revolution. Richard Threvithick, an English engineer, built the first steam locomotive. In 1804, Threvithick’s locomotive ran on an industrial rail-line in Britain. It pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people 5 miles per hour. Better locomotives soon followed. In 1813, George Stephenson built the Blucher, the first successful flanged-wheel locomotive. With its flanged wheels, the Blucher ran on top of the rails instead of in sunken tracks.

35. Factors of Production • Resources needed to produce goods and services that the Industrial Revolution required. These include land, labor, and capital. (wealth) • The success of Stockton & Darlington, the first true railroad, encouraged investors to link by rail Manchester and Liverpool. In 1829, the investors sponsored a competition to find the most suitable locomotive to do the job. They selected the Rocket. The Rocket sped along at 16 miles per hour while pulling a 40 ton train. Within 20 years, locomotives were able to reach 50 miles per hour. In 1840, Britain had almost 2,000 miles of railroads. In 1850, more than 6,000 miles of railroad track crisscrossed much of that country. Railroad expansion caused a ripple effect in the economy. Building railroads created new jobs for farm laborers and peasants. Less expensive transportation led to lower priced goods, thus creating larger markets. More sales meant more factories and more machinery. Business owners could reinvest their profits in new equipment, adding to the growth of the economy. This type of regular, ongoing economic growth became a basic feature of the new industrial economy. The Industrial Revolution spread to the rest of Europe at different times and speeds. First to be industrialized in continental Europe were Belgium, France, and the German states. In these places, governments actively encouraged industrialization. For example, governments provided funds to build roads, canals, and railroads. By 1850, a network of iron rails spread across Europe. • An Industrial Revolution also occurred in the United States. In 1800, 5 million people lived in the U.S., and 6 out of every 7 American workers were farmers. No city had more than 100,000 people. By 1860, the population had grown to 30 million people. Cities had also grown. Nine cities had populations over 100,000. Only 50% of American workers were farmers. A large country, the U.S. needed a good transportation system to move goods across the nation. Thousands of miles of roads and canals were built to link east and west. Robert Fulton built the first paddle-wheel steamboat, the Clermont, in 1807. Most important in the development of an American transportation system was the railroad. It began with fewer than 100 miles of track in 1830. By 1860, about 30,000 miles of railroad track covered the U.S. The country became a single massive market for the manufactured goods of the Northeast. Labor for the growing number of factories in the Northeast came chiefly from the farm population. Women and girls made up a large majority of the workers in large textile (cotton and wool) factories.

36. Factories • Large buildings in which merchants housed machines. Wealthy British textile merchants built their factories near waterways because most of the early machines ran on waterpower. • Cottage Industry – The two-step process of manufacturing cotton cloth; first, spinners made cotton thread from raw cotton; second, weavers wove the cotton into cloth. Prior to the 18th century this process was carried out mostly by women in rural cottages. James Watt – Scottish engineer who, in 1782, made changes that enabled steam engines to drive machinery which could spin and weave cotton, increasing cloth production dramatically. As a result of Watt’s invention, cotton mills using steam engines were found all over Britain. Because steam engines were fired by coal, not powered by water, they did not need to be located near rivers. British cotton cloth production increased dramatically. In 1760, Britain had imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of it spun on machines. By 1840, 366 million pounds of cotton were imported. By this time, cotton cloth was Britain’s most valuable product. Sold everywhere in the world, British cotton goods were produced mainly in factories. • The steam engine was crucial to Britain’s Industrial Revolution. For fuel, the engine depended on coal, a substance that seemed then to be unlimited in quantity. The success of the steam engine increased the need for coal and led to an expansion in coal production. New processes using coal aided the transformation of another industry – the iron industry. Britain’s natural resources included large supplies of iron ore. At the beginning of the 18th century, the basic process of producing iron had changed little since the Middle Ages. A better quality of iron was produced in the 1780’s when Henry Cort developed a process called puddling. England’s cotton came from plantations in the American South in the 1790s. Removing seeds from the raw cotton by hand was hard work. In 1793, an American inventor named Eli Whitney invented a machine to speed the chore. His cotton gin multiplied the amount of cotton that could be cleaned. American cotton production skyrocketed from 1.5 million pounds in 1790 to 85 million pounds in 1810. Closure Question #2: Analyze the causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution. (At least 2 causes and 2 effects)

37. Entrepreneur Entrepreneur – An individual who establish or invest in businesses using capital in order to make profits. During the Industrial Revolution entrepreneurs came to dominate the economy as government’s supported laissez-faire policies, avoiding regulation of business. Capital is money which is invested in a business and used to buy land, natural resources, machines, tools, advertising, and to pay workers. In the 18th century, Great Britain had surged way ahead in the production of inexpensive cotton goods. The manufacture of cotton cloth was a two-step process. First, spinners made cotton thread from raw cotton. Then, weavers wove the cotton thread into cloth on looms. In the 18th century, individuals spun the thread and then wove the cloth in their rural cottages. This production was thus called a cottage industry. A series of technological advances in the 18th century made cottage industry inefficient. First, the invention of the “flying shuttle” made weaving faster. Now, weavers needed more thread from spinners because they could produce cloth at a faster rate. In 1764 James Hargreaves had invented a machine called the spinning jenny, which met this need. Other inventions made similar contributions. The spinning process became much faster. In fact, spinners produced thread faster than weavers could use it. Another invention made it possible for the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of thread. This was a water-powered loom invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1787. It now became more efficient to bring workers to the new machines and have them work in factories near streams and rivers, which were used to power many of the early machines. The cotton industry became even more productive when the steam engine was improved in the 1760s by James Watt, a Scottish engineer. In 1782, Watt made changes that enabled the engine to drive machinery. Closure Question #3: What effect did entrepreneurs have upon the Industrial Revolution?

38. Closure Assignment #5 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 25, Section 1: • Was the revolution in agriculture necessary to the Industrial Revolution? Explain. • Analyze the causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution. (At least 2 causes and 2 effects) • What effect did entrepreneurs have upon the Industrial Revolution?

39. Urbanization • City building and the movement of people to cities. Between 1800 and 1850, the number of European cities boasting more than 100,000 inhabitants rose from 22 to 47, with most urban areas doubling, and some even quadrupling, in population. • By the end of the 19th century, the new industrial world had led to the emergence of a mass society in which the condition of the majority – the lower classes – was demanding some government attention. Governments now had to consider how to appeal to the masses, rather than just to the wealthier citizens. Housing was one area of great concern. Crowded quarters could easily spread disease. An even bigger threat to health was public sanitation. With few jobs available in the countryside, people from rural areas migrated to cities to find work in the factories or, later, in blue-collar industries. As a result of this vast migration, more and more people lived in cities. In the 1850s, urban dwellers made up about 40% of the English population, 15% of France, 10% of Prussia (Prussia was the largest German state), and 5% of Russia. By 1890, urban dwellers had increased to about 60% in England, 25% in France, 30% in Prussia, and 10% in Russia. In industrialized nations, cities grew tremendously. Between 1800 and 1900 the population of London grew from 960,000 to 6,500,000. • Cities also grew faster in the second half of the 19th century because of improvements in public health and sanitation. Thus, more people could survive living close together. Improvements came only after reformers in the 1840s urged local governments to do something about the filthy living conditions that caused disease. For example, cholera had ravaged Europe in the early 1830s and 1840s. Contaminated water in the overcrowded cities had spread the deadly disease. On the advice of reformers, city governments created boards of health to improve housing quality. Medical officers and building inspectors inspected dwellings for public health hazards. Building regulations required running water and internal drainage systems for new buildings. Closure Question #1: How did industrialization contribute to city growth?

40. Closure Question #2: How were class tensions affected by the Industrial Revolution? • The new middle class transformed the social structure of Great Britain. In the past, landowners and aristocrats had occupied the top position in British society. With most of the wealth, they wielded the social and political power. Now some factory owners, merchants, and bankers grew wealthier than the landowners and aristocrats. Yet important social distinctions divided the two wealthy classes. Landowners looked down on those who had made their fortunes in the “vulgar” business world. Not until the late 1800s were rich entrepreneurs considered the social equals of the lords of the countryside. • Gradually, a larger middle class – neither rich nor poor – emerged. The upper middle class consisted of government employees, doctors, lawyers, and managers of factories, mines, and shops. The lower middle class included factory overseers and such skilled workers as toolmakers, mechanical drafters, and printers. These people enjoyed a comfortable standard of living. During the years 1800 to 1850, however, laborers, or the working class, saw little improvement in their living and working conditions. They watched their livelihoods disappear as machines replaced them. In frustration, some smashed the machines they thought were putting them out of work.

41. Middle Class • Social class made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy farmers. As a result of the Industrial Revolution the middle class grew dramatically, transforming western Europe from a society dominated by aristocratic landowners to one in which business people came to dominate the social and political landscape. • The family was the central institution of middle-class life. With fewer children in the family, mothers could devote more time to child care and domestic leisure. The middle-class family fostered an ideal of togetherness. The Victorians created the family Christmas with its Yule log, tree, songs, and exchange of gifts. By the 1850s, 4th of July in the United States had changed from wild celebrations to family picnics. The lives of working class women were different from those of their middle-class counterparts. Most working class women had to earn money to help support their families. While their earnings averaged only a small percentage of their husbands’ earnings, the contributions of working-class women made a big difference in the economic survival of their families. Daughters in working-class families were expected to work until they married. After marriage, many women often did small jobs at home to support the family. • For working-class women who worked away from the home, child care was a concern. Older siblings, other relatives, or neighbors often provided child care while the mother worked. Some mothers sent their children to dame schools in which other women provided in-home child care, as well as some basic literacy instruction. For the children of the working classes, childhood was over by the age of 9 or 10. By this age, children often became apprentices or were employed in odd jobs. Between 1890 and 1914, however, family patterns among the working class began to change. Higher-paying jobs in heavy industry and improvements in the standard of living made it possible for working-class families to depend on the income of husbands alone. By the early 20th century, some working-class mothers could afford to stay at home, following the pattern of middle-class women. At the same time, working class families aspired to buy new consumer products, such as sewing machines and cast-iron stoves. Closure Question #3: The Industrial Revolution has been described as a mixed blessing. Do you agree or disagree? Support your answer with specific facts.

42. Closure Assignment #6 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 25, Section 2: • How did industrialization contribute to city growth? • How were class tensions affected by the Industrial Revolution? • The Industrial Revolution has been described as a mixed blessing. Do you agree or disagree? Support your answer with specific facts.

43. Closure Question #1: Read the quote from Lucy Larcom. Do you think her feelings about working in the mill are typical? Why or why not? • “Country girls were naturally independent, and the feeling that at this new work the few hours they had of everyday leisure were entirely their own was a satisfaction to them. They preferred it to going out as “hired help”. It was like a young man’s pleasure in entering upon business for himself. Girls had never tried that experiment before, and they liked it.” –Lucy Larcom, A New England Girlhood

44. Closure Question #2: Why was Britain unable to keep industrial secrets way from other nations? • The United States possessed the same resources that allowed Britain to mechanize its industries. America had fast-flowing rivers, rich deposits of coal and iron ore, and a supply of laborers made up of farm workers and immigrants. During the War of 1812, Britain blockaded the United States, trying to keep it from engaging in international trade. This blockade forced the young country to use its own resources to develop independent industries. Those industries would manufacture the goods the United States could longer import. • As in Britain, industrialization in the United States began in the textile industry. Eager to keep the secrets of industrialization to itself, Britain had forbidden engineers, mechanics, and toolmakers to leave the country. In 1789, however, a young British mill worker named Samuel Slater emigrated to the United States. There, Slater built a spinning machine from memory and a partial design. The following year, Moses Brown opened the first factory in the United States to house Slater’s machines in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. But the Pawtucket factory mass-produced only part of finished cloth, the thread.

45. Stock / Corporation • Stock – Certain rights of ownership of a business which were sold by entrepreneurs in order to raise money. People who bought stock became part owners of the business and shared in both the profits and losses of the business. • Corporation – A business owned by stockholders who are not personally responsible for the debts of the business. Corporations were able to raise large amounts of capital needed to invest in industrial equipment. • In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell of Boston and four other investors revolutionized the American textile industry. They mechanized every stage in the manufacture of cloth. Their weaving factory in Waltham, Massachusetts, earned them enough money to fund a larger operation in another Massachusetts town. When Lowell died, the remaining partners named the town after him. By the late 1820s, Lowell, Massachusetts, had become a booming manufacturing center and a model for other such towns. • Thousands of young single women flocked from their rural homes to work as mill girls in factory towns. There, they could make higher wages and have some independence. However, to ensure proper behavior, they were watched closely inside and outside the factory by their employers. The mill girls toiled more than 12 hours a day, 6 days a week, for decent wages. For some, the mill job was an alternative to being a servant and was often the only other job open to them. Textiles led the way, but clothing manufacture and shoemaking also underwent mechanization. Especially in the Northeast, skilled workers and farmers had formerly worked at home. Now they labored in factories in towns and cities such as Waltham, Lowell, and Lawrence, Massachusetts. • The Northeast experienced much industrial growth in the early 1800s. Nonetheless, the United States remained primarily agricultural until the Civil War ended in 1865. During the last third of the 1800s, the country experienced a technological boom. As in Britain, a umber of causes contributed to the boom. These included a wealth of natural resources, among them oil, coal, and iron; a burst of inventions, such as the electric light bulb, and the telephone; and a swelling urban population that consumed new manufactured goods.

46. Closure Question #3: What was the most significant event of the Industrial Revolution? • Industrialization widened the wealth gap between industrialized and nonindustrialized countries, even while it strengthened their economic ties. To keep factories running and workers fed, industrialized countries required a steady supply of raw materials from less-developed lands. In turn, industrialized countries viewed poor countries as markets for their manufactured products. • Britain led in exploiting its overseas colonies for resources and markets. Soon other European countries, the United States, Russia, and Japan followed Britain’s lead, seizing colonies for their economic resources. Imperialism, the policy of extending one country’s rule over many other lands, gave even more power and wealth to these already wealthy nations. Imperialism was born out of the cycle of industrialization, the need for resources to supply the factories of Europe, and the development of new markets around the world.

47. Closure Assignment #7 • Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 25, Section 3: • Read the quote from Lucy Larcom. Do you think her feelings about working in the mill are typical? Why or why not? • Why was Britain unable to keep industrial secrets way from other nations? • What was the most significant event of the Industrial Revolution?

48. Laissez Faire • “To let people do what they want”; Economic belief that governments should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces by imposing regulations but instead should leave the economy alone. • Laissez-faire economics stemmed from French economic philosophers of the Enlightenment. They criticized the idea that nations grow wealthy by placing heavy tariffs on foreign goods. In fact, they argued, government regulations only interfered with the production of wealth. These philosophers believed that if government allowed free trade – the flow of commerce in the world market without government regulation – the economy would prosper. Adam Smith, a professor at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, defended the idea of a free economy, or free markets, in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations. According to Smith, economic liberty guaranteed economic progress. As a result, government should not interfere. Smith’s arguments rested on what he called the three natural laws of economics: 1) The law of self –interest - People work for their own good. 2) The law of competition – Competition forces people to make a better product. 3) The law of supply and demand – Enough goods would be produced at the lowest possible price to met demand in a market economy. • Smith’s basic ideas were supported by British economists Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. Like Smith, they believed that natural laws governed economic life. Their important ideas were the foundation of laissez-faire capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system in which the factors of production are privately owned and money is invested in business ventures to make a profit. These ideas also helped bring about the Industrial Revolution. In An Essay on the Principle of Population, written in 1798, Thomas Malthus argued that population tended to increase more rapidly than food supply. Without wars and epidemics to kill off the extra people, most were destined to be poor and miserable. The predictions of Malthus seemed to becoming true in the 1840s.

49. Adam Smith Adam Smith – Scottish economist and philosophe and supporter of Laissez-Faire economics; Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, argues that governments should not interfere in economic matters. The Physiocrats and Scottish philosopher Adam Smith have been viewed as the founders of the modern social science of economics. The Physiocrats, a French group, were interested in identifying the natural economic laws that governed human society. They maintained that if individuals were free to pursue their own economic self-interest, all society would benefit. The best statement of laissez-faire was made in 1776 by Adam Smith. Like the Physiocrats, Smith believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters. Indeed, Smith gave to government only 3 basic roles. First, it should protect society from invasion (the function of the army). Second, the government should defend citizens from injustice (the function of the police). And finally, it should keep up certain public works that private individuals alone could not afford – roads and canals, for example – but which are necessary for social interaction and trade. “No society can surely be happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and miserable.” Someone reading this quote might think it originated with an American patriot or a French revolutionary. However, it actually came from Adam Smith, widely regarded as “the father of capitalism”. Besides being the architect of the laissez-faire doctrine of government noninterference with commerce, and an opponent of heavy government taxation, Smith was also an outspoken advocate for ethical standards in society. His friends included Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, and David Hume, three of the late 18th century’s most revolutionary thinkers.

50. Capitalism • An economic system based on industrial production which created two new social classes – the industrial middle class and working class – made up of people involved in factory labor. • In the United States, factory workers sometimes sought entire families, including children, to work in their factories. One advertisement in the town of Utica, New York, read: “Wanted: A few sober and industrious families of at least 5 children each, over the age of 8 years, are wanted at the cotton factory in Whitestown. Widows with large families would do well to attend this notice.” European population stood at an estimated 140 million by 1750. By 1850, the population had almost doubled to 266 million. One reason death rates declined was better-fed people were more resistant to disease. Famine, with the exception of the Irish potato famine, seemed to have disappeared from Western Europe. Many thought population growth led to economic growth. In 1798, the economist Thomas Malthus published An Essay on the Principle of Population about poverty and population growth. According to his theory, when there is an increase in the food supply, the population tends to increase too fast for the food supply to keep up, leading to famine, disease, and war. • Famine and poverty were 2 factors in global migration and urbanization. Almost a million people died during the Irish potato famine, and poverty led a million more to migrate to the Americas. The enclosure laws forced farmers to migrate from the countryside looking for work. Industrialization also spurred urbanization as large numbers of people migrated to cities to work in factories. In 1800, Great Britain had one major city, London, with a population of about 1 million. 6 cities had populations between 50,000 and 100,000. By 1850, London’s population had swelled to about 2.5 million. 9 cities had populations over 100,000 and 18 cities had populations between 50,000 and 100,000. Also, over 50% of the population lived in towns and cities. Closure Question #1 Summarize the population growth of Great Britain’s cities by using a chart containing the following information: a) London’s Population in 1800 & 1850; b) # of cities with population over 100,000 in 1800 & 1850; c) # of cities with population between 50,000 & 100,000 in 1800 & 1850.