French, Industrial Revolution and the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

1. French, Industrial Revolution and the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

2. Agricultural Revolution • 17th and 18th century- technology applied to British agriculture. • Jethro Tull- seed drill • Iron plow is invented • Crop rotation- three fields planted and the fourth instead of lying fallow was planted with turnips which would enrich the soil and provide food for livestock during the winter months. – ending the need for mass slaughter of livestock at the beginning of winter. • New crops from the new world- like the potato, peas and beans. • Agricultural Revolution in Britain accompanied by the enclosure movement. • Enclosure involved the efforts of landowning aristocrats to enclose common land by building fences and stone walls, thereby ending the medieval practice of free access to grazing and woodlands. By the 19th century almost all of England's lands had been enclosed. • Enclosure movement increased the number of large and medium sized farms, as well as the production of food and other agricultural products, but it left peasants impoverished farm laborers and many began heading to the city to find work in the newly developing factories.

3. Industrial Revolution • GB leads- because of ample coal and iron resources, British merchants being wealthy and therefore had the capital to invest in new industries, British had the markets due to colonies to sell the products and the British government adopted policies to promote the interest of the country’s industrialists and merchants. • Early industrial revolution is a textile revolution- putting out system can’t keep up with demand so new inventions move it into the industrial era. • Flying shuttle- one weaver vs. 2 can run the loom now • Spinning Jenny- single worker can spin a number of threads at the same time • Waterframe- produced a stronger thread than the spinning Jenny • Mule- perfected the waterframe • Power loom- patented in 1785 • These machines caused the demand for raw cotton to grow, the task of removing the seeds is made possible by the cotton gin. • Standardized interchangeable parts invented for machinery, so efficiency and operation is increased. • Factory- had to move industry here to house the huge machines • Development of the steam engine provided a dependable, efficient source of power for the new industrial machinery (James Watt)- now hundreds can be used to power the factory machines.

4. French Revolution • Financial problems from Louis XIV increased and became more serious after the 7 Years War. Nobility wanted more rights (had been taken away by Louis XIV)- wanted to share power with the King. • 1774- Louis XV is king and Queen is Marie Antoinette. Jacques Turgot is chief financial advisor- wanted to end thecorvee(requirement that peasants work on the roads)- he was dismissed. • Jaque Necker takes over for Turgot and didn’t attempt any reforms, but went back to borrowing and increased spending. • 1788 Louis summons the Estates General because he needs money • First estate- clergy; Second- nobility; third- peasants; 1st and 2nd estate do not pay taxes • Emerging middle class (technically part of the 3rd estate) want an end to mercantilist polices, a more fair tax system and a great voice in political affairs. • Nobility wanted a constitutional monarchy • Originally estates were suppose to vote by estate (so the 1st and 2nd always outnumbered the 3rd, even though the 3rd had the most people in it)- so the third estate broke away from the Estates General and formed the National Assembly in 1789- wanted to vote by head and invited the other 2 estates to join them. • Tennis Court Oath- National Assembly pledges it will not disband until France has a constitution. • Louis XV orders the NA to disband but the defied him so Louis eventually gave in. • THIS PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION IS CONTROLLED BY THE MODERATES from the middle class and liberal nobles. • Louis hoped to reassert his authority so he gathered Swiss and German mercenaries in Paris, rumors spread that he was going to disband the NA which led to rioting in Paris.

5. Storming of the Bastille-July 14th 1789 (fortress prison that was a symbol of oppression) was stormed by Parisians. The Red, white and blue tricolor flag is adopted. • During the Summer of 1789- the Great Fear- swept through France, rumors of famine and bandits in the pay of the king which increased the fervor of the peasants. • Aug 4th- the NA in an attempt to calm things down, abolished any remnants of the feudal system, including nobility privileges. • August 27, 1789- Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen- embodied enlightened ideas, represented the middle class, rights to liberty, property, security, freedom of speech, the press, religion, freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. • October 5-6th Women March to Versailles- angry at rumors the King is going to try to assert his authority and angry over the rising prices of bread. The king and royal family agree to return to their palace in Tuileries. • Nov. 1789 Civil Constitution of the Clergy- trying to solve the debt crisis, the NA confiscated the church lands, Bishops and Priests elected by the people (Clergy refused and became opponents of the revolution) • 1791- King is caught attempting to flee Paris • Constitution of 1791- King is compelled to accept I, establishes a limited monarchy with separation of powers between the three branches, NA is replaced with the Legislative Assembly.

6. Legislative Assembly • First meeting Oct. 1791- Conservatives and Moderates want to preserve the constitution of 1791 grew weaker, while the influence of the radicals who wanted the revolution to do more great. • The Girondistsand the Mountain/Jacobins were the two main radical groups • Prussia and Austria threatened to intervene in the revolution to protect the monarchy, LA declares war on them. • Liberty, Equality, Fraternity- became the motto of the French Revolution • Paris mob attacked the king’s castle, he fled to the LA who took him hostage and deposed him from power (led by the radicals) • The LA is now replaced by the National Convention that would draft a constitution for a French Republic • National Convention- Sept 1792- proclaimed a French Republic. Radicals, from the Mountains, dominated the NC- Danton, Robespierre and Marat. • Found the King guilty of conspiracy and the NC voted to execute him, he was beheaded in Jan. 1793 • Enacted a series of reforms- slavery is abolished in French colonies, primogeniture (first son inherits land) is abolished, metric system is established, imprisonment for debt is abolished, estates of nobles who fled France were confiscated and sold to the peasants, a new calendar was created. • NC at war with Europe and faced revolts in France- so to combat the crisis the Committee of Public Safety was created in 1793- Robespierre established full control over the NC and from the summer of 1793-1794 the Reign of Terror was carried out by the COPS. • Robespierre hoped to create a Republic of Virtue and extreme violence was justified to achieve it, 16000 people were killed by the guillotine accused of being against the revolution. • By 1794 opposition to Robespierre mounted (Especially after he started attacking Catholicism) and he was arrested and beheaded. • Power now passed from the radicals to the wealthy middle class- they wrote a new constitution which created in 1795 the Directory.

7. The Directory and Napoleon • Great difficulty dealing with the financial crisis, began to rely on the army for support. • Nov 1799 Napoleon overthrew the Directory and established a military dictatorship. • Created a constitution creating the Consulate, Napoleon ruled as first consul for 10 years. • 1802 he was made Consul for life, 1804 Napoleon became Emperor. • Married Marie- Louise of Austria and had a son. • Deprived the French people of their political liberty and expression but gave them an efficient and orderly government. Drafted a new code of civil law- Napoleonic Code in 1807. (citizens equal before the law, abolition of privileges based on birth, freedom of religion and freedom for people to keep the property they gained in the revolution. • State over the individual • Concordant of 1801- reconciled France and the Pope • Established a new state controlled education system of elite secondary schools and professional schools. • 1806 GB, Austria and Russia went to war with France- conquered most everyone but the British • Continental System- designed to make it impossible for the British to trade with the continent, virtually impossible to enforce. • Napoleon’s big mistake was invading Russia • On April 11, 1814- Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to Elba, the allies restored the Bourbon monarchy and Louis XVI is king. • 1815 Napoleon left Elba and reentered France, defeated again at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, exiled again.

8. Congress of Vienna • Begin talks in Sept 1814 through June 1815. • 4 great powers represented were Great Britain (Castlereigh), Austria (Metternich), Prussia and Russia (Alexander I). (France (Talleyrand) was later included) • Major Goals • Not to punish France so much as make sure they couldn’t embark on wars of aggression again. • Restore a balance of power, so that no one country could dominate Europe- but weakening France excessively would also upset this balance. • Compensation- if one major state gains land, then the others should be compensated. • Legitimacy- the desire of the great powers to restore rulers and boundaries they had before the French Revolution and Napoleon. • Finally the victorious allies expected to be rewarded in defeating Napoleon and penalized countries that cooperated with Napoleon. • Intervention- the great powers should intervene in any country where the conservative order was threatened (Great Britain was less on board with this idea) • Metternich especially was committed to the principles of conservatism and did not like the new ideas of nationalism and liberalism. • Second Treaty of Paris imposed on France- France reduced to borders o 1790, had to pay 700 million francs to the Allies and accept allied military occupation of 17 forts for 5 years. • Russia, Prussia and Austria signed the Holy Alliance, pledging to observe Christian principles in foreign and domestic affairs. (little significance in practice) • The Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria and GB) was more important- agreed to maintain the alliance that defeated Napoleon and meet periodically to discuss issues of mutual concern. • NO MAJOR WARS FOR THE NEXT 100 YEARS

9. Greek and Belgian Independence • Revolution against the Turks broke out in Greece in 1823- by 1825 the Turks had almost crushed the Greeks, but the Great Powers interfered mainly due to Greece contributing to the development of Western Civ • Russia declared war on Turkey and moved towards them- Serbia was given independence as well as Greece. • In 1830 Belgian revolt broke out against Dutch rule. In 1830, a national congress declared Belgium’s independence and they had a liberal constitution by 1831. Belgium was granted neutrality in 1839. The Great Powers had been busy with other concerns and therefore did not stop the revolt from occurring.

10. Liberalism • In general liberals oppose arbitrary government and advocate an expansion of political, economic and religious freedom. • Primarily a middle class movement, with really no concern for the wellbeing of the masses. • Favor representative government but not FULL DEMOCRACY. • Favored the establishment of civil liberties like freedom of speech, the press, assembly, freedom of religion and freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. • Wanted capitalism, very limited if any government involvement in the economy- not for mercantilism. • Make sure you know the opposite of liberalism- conservatism (know it’s characteristics, Metternich, Hegel and Burke)

11. Great Britain • Peterloo Massacre- 1819 troops fired on a crowd that had gathered to hear speeches on reform and the repeal of the corn laws. • Following the Peterloo Massacre Parliament adopted the Six Acts in 1819 which restricted freedom of speech, assembly and other civil liberties. • Reform Bill of 1832- at this point in time the British parliament is not very democratic or representative of the British population. This bill redistributed seats in the House of Commons so that they were more equal and the middle class was able to vote. • 1833- Parliament abolished slavery throughout their empire. • Factory Act 1833- placed restrictions on child labor in textile mills as well as created a system of inspectors to make certain the law was being observed. • Movement against the Corn Laws grew as the introduction of free trade occurred. (corn laws was a tariff on wheat and other grains) Repealed after the Irish Famine in 1846. • The Chartist Movement- their petitions were ignored in 1839, 1842 and 1848 but they were ultimately enacted. • Universal manhood suffrage • The secret ballot in place of voting in public meetings. • Abolition of property requirements for members of the House of Commons • The payment of salaries to the House of Commons • Creation of equal electoral districts • Annual elections for the House of Commons (this one never happened)

12. France • 1814-1830 France ruled by Bourbon monarchy- Louis XVIII (moderate) and Charles X (royalist) • Charter of 1814- constitution that called for a 2 house parliament and guaranteed the civil liberties earned in the revolution, named Catholicism as the state religion and allowed the Napoleonic Code to remain enact as well as the land confiscated from the nobility and church that was redistributed was allowed to remain that way. • 1824 Charles X is king and began to undo the Charter of 1814, restricting civil liberties. • July 1830- the French revolted against Charles X who abdicated and fled to Great Britain. • Created a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe 1830-1848- he increased the electorate, Adolphe Thiers as his advisor until 1840 when Francis Guizot took over and being more conservative he moved the government in a different direction. The people revolted again and in 1848 Louis Philippe was overthrownand the Second Republic was created.