Fitness Testing and Conditioning in Athletics

1. Fitness Testing and Conditioning in Athletics Core Concepts in Athletic Training and Therapy Susan Kay Hillman

2. Chapter Objectives • Identify ways in which information from fitness testing can help the athletic trainer. • Discuss the rationale for conducting fitness testing at various times before, during, or after the sport or training season. • Explain the method of establishing the 1-repetition maximum in weightlifting. • Define aerobic and anaerobic with reference to energy systems and relate each to various activities. • Define isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic exercise and give an example of each. • Compare and contrast the two types of muscle contraction: concentric and eccentric. • Discuss factors to consider in designing an exercise prescription. • Define the overload principle and explain how it applies to conditioning and strength techniques.

3. Introduction • Individual working with team should be familiar with different aspects of strength and conditioning • Coaches, S & C specialist, athletic trainer • Attention to proper warm up, stretching and exercise prescription • Careful planning and exercise selection can help improve performance and decrease risk of injury

4. Fitness Testing Procedures • Conditioning program requires knowledge of baseline of fitness • Fitness test can help identify weaknesses, movement dysfunctions, body composition, flexibility, cardio respiratory function • Preseason Participation Evaluation • Used to assess individuals level of conditioning • Determine weaknesses and establish conditioning/training program • Ongoing Evaluations • Determine effectiveness of program • Evaluation of program could allow the person implementing program to better individualize lifting program of each participant • Indicate individuals progress toward fitness goals • Postseason Fitness Evaluations • Establish specific areas to address during off-season • Better understanding of goals to to reach during off-season

5. Fitness Testing Parameters • Muscle Function • Muscle strength • Maximum amount of force that a muscle or muscle group can generate during specific movement pattern at a specified velocity • Muscle Endurance • Ability of muscle or group of muscles to perform repetitive actions • Sports like cross country , some events in track and swimming require great amount of endurance • Repeated movement can cause trauma in weak or unconditioned muscles

6. Fitness Testing Parameters • Muscle Power • Work during a unit of time • Weight lifted (force) x Range of movement (vertical distance)/time required to perform lift. • Develop power by lifting same (or greater) amount of weight the same distance in shorter period of time

7. Fitness Testing Parameters • Evaluating Muscle Strength • 1RM: amount of weight lifted 1 time • 50%-75%-90%-100% of predicted weight • Add weight until person unable to complete lift • Repetition maximum: maximum # of repetitions person can lift at particular weight • # of repetitions at specific weight can also measure strength, but also endurance • Testing Muscle Endurance and Evaluating Muscle Power • Endurance uses different energy source • Sport specific evaluation or general endurance evaluation • Squat at given weight to test leg endurance=specific • Sit up test (# in 60 sec)= general test • Power • Maximal force in short period of time • Vertical jump

8. Fitness Testing Parameters • Cardiorespiratory Function • Function of Heart and Lungs working together • Measuring Anaerobic Power: “ Without Oxygen • Activities of short duration=uses source of energy that does not require as much O2 • Sprints/Explosive Movements • Shuttle run, vertical jump • Evaluating Aerobic Power: “With Oxygen” • Athletic events that require O2 consumption during performance • Longer duration. Energy source that is dependant on O2 • 1.5 mile run=standard for measuring aerobic power • Table 2.2 • SIDEBAR: Aerobic Tests

9. Fitness Testing Parameters • Agility and Speed • Agility: ability to start, stop and change direction • Useful in most sports • Testing Agility • Rapid acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, and acceleration • T-test, Edgren Side Step Test • Measuring Speed • Important for sports with short burst of activity to reach a position or location • 40 yard dash

11. Fitness Testing Parameters • Flexibility • Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of motion (ROM) • Effect of Muscle Size on Flexibility • Bulk (hypertrophied muscles) can limit movement • Include stretching program for muscles exercised • Strengthen agonist and antagonist muscles • Effect of Ligament and Tendon Composition on Flexibility • All connective tissue made up of combination of collagen and elastin • Some people have more elasticity in ligaments and tendons =Hypermobile • Decreased elasticity=Hypo mobile

15. Fitness Testing Parameters • Effects of Age and Sex on Flexibility • Generally thought females are more flexible than men though this is not absolute • Activities that encourage flexibility will increase their ability to stretch regardless of sex • As we age we decrease in flexibility • Can delay or reverse effects of aging with continued stretching program • Active people have better flexibility than sedentary people

16. Fitness Testing Parameters • Testing Flexibility • Evaluating flexibility important to fitness program. • Decrease in ROM at a joint may play role in causing injury • Manual stretching test: compare to normal values • Sit and Reach Test: General test for hamstring flexibility • Functional Movement Test • Can identify shortened (overactive/tight) muscles and/or lengthened (inhibited(weak) muscles

17. Fitness Testing Parameters • Height, Weight, and Body Composition • Anthropometry: measurement of body size • Body composition: amount of fat in relation to lean tissue in body • Levels of fat that are to high affect ability to move optimally • Also associated with heart disease high blood pressure, diabetes, arthritis and some cancers • Measured by skin caliper test, BMI, test, hydrostatic weighting test and electric impedance

19. Exercise Prescription • Needs Analysis- Specificity • Muscle Groups • Demands of the sport and the abilities of the individual • Physiology and mechanics of the sport and sport skills is essential for designing the exercise program • Energy Systems • Aerobic vs. anaerobic or both • Train accordingly • Muscle Activity • Concentric, eccentric and isometric • Injury Patterns • Understand teams injury history or evaluate baseline testing • If individual has pre-existing injury must have clearance from physician before beginning exercise program

21. Exercise Prescription • Goal Setting • Critical role within exercise prescription • Program without objectives and goals will lose interest of athlete • Short-Term Goals • Immediate (daily) and short range (monthly • Contribute to long term goals • Long-Term Goals • People take responsibility for establishing own goals motivation is more likely • Identify specific goals and exact outcomes • Relate to needs analysis: strength endurance and cardiorespiratory • Limitations to the Plan

22. Exercise Prescription • Exercise Plans • Training volume • Amount of work performed during a workout, during a week, and during a season • Repetitions or total weight lifted • If increasing muscle mass is the goal volume will increase as program progresses • Exercise order • The station approach • Maximize overload on one muscle group before moving on to another • More intense load on muscle group, but need to manage rest time between sets • Circuit training • Perform one set of exercise and then move on to another • When circuit is complete start at first station again • Theory is to work a muscle group to near fatigue or fatigue and then moving on to next exercise keeping heart rate elevated • Muscle groups get rest period while doing other exercises

23. Developing the Strength Training Program • Necessary to incorporate 2 essentials into every program • Resistance to muscle actions • Gravity, dumbbells, cables, elastic bands, etc. • Overload • Stress or load on the muscle that is greater than what the muscle is accustomed to moving

24. Developing the Strength Training Program • Exercise Intensity: • Intensity refers to % of 1RM • Hypertrophy method • Hypertrophy=general increase in bulk of muscle through increase in size of individual muscle fiber • 5-12 repetitions at 70-85% of 1RM • High-intensity training method • Improve recruitment of existing muscle fibers rather than increase size of fibers • Greater the load on muscle fibers the more fibers are used • 1-4 repetitions at 85-100% 1RM

26. Developing the Strength Training Program • Periodization • Gradual increase in type, intensity and amount of training • Achieve peak performance • Decrease injuries and overtraining • Program that spans various seasons • Modify program relative to athlete’s • General to specific training throughout the cycles of competitive season

27. Periods or Phases • Transition period: • Follows last competition (early off-season) • Unstructured (escape rigors of training) • Preparatory period: • Off-season • Hypertrophy/endurance phase (Low intensity with high volume) • Allows for development of endurance base • Lasts several weeks to 2 months • Strength Phase • Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)

28. Periods or Phases • Preparatory period (continued) • Strength Phase • Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels • Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season) • Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery • Competition period: • May last a < week or several months for seasonal sports • High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions • May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7 days) • Designed to ensure peak on days of competition

29. Developing the Strength Training Program • Progressive Overload • Gradual increase in stress placed on a muscle as it gains strength or endurance • Rest periods and Training Frequency • Rest Periods • Rest between sets or exercises • Crucial component to strength training • Depends on training volume and exercise order • Higher volume=longer rest period vice versa • If circuit training 1:1 ratio in rest to exercise can increase strength and aerobic endurance

30. Developing the Strength Training Program • Training Frequency • Weight training on alternate days to allow sufficient recovery periods • Early in exercise program athlete may experience muscle soreness or Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness. • May require longer recovery periods • Sessions of multiple joint exercise require more recovery than single joint exercises • When using 1Rm or near maximal loads individuals will require more recovery time • Lower training volume in between heavy training volume days can allow for more frequent lifting sessions • Persons who have weight lifted on a regular basis for a long time may benefit from more frequent training sessions

31. Types of Strength Training • Isometrics • Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged • Muscle generates force without joint movement • Resistance greater than participant is able to move, thus no movement occurs • Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should be performed 5-10 times/daily • Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab • Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver, not often applicable to sport performance

32. Types of Strength Training • Isotonic Training • Moving a joint through range of motion with a set amount of resistance • Strength curves: points in the range of every joint where the muscle is at its weakest • Middle of range usually the strongest

33. Types of Strength Training • Variable Resistance • Started in 1970’s by nautilus company who developed an offset cam to deliver a variation in the resistance to the movement • Maximize strength at various points in the range of motion • Sliding lever bar systems and elastic tubing developed later

34. Types of Strength Training • Isokinetics • Muscle action performed at constant velocity • More often used in rehabilitation

35. Types of Strength Training • Concentric and Eccentric Training • Concentric Muscle Activity • shortening of muscle with contraction in an effort to overcome more resistance • Eccentric Muscle Activity • lengthening of muscle with contraction because load is greater than force being produced

37. Types of Strength Training • Plyometrics • Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a rapid concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive movement • Mimics most sport movement • Rate of stretch vs. magnitude • Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws • Very technical training - skills must be learned with appropriate technique • Often develop muscle soreness as a result of extensive eccentric loading

38. Integrating Cardiorespiratory and Flexibility Parameters • Aerobic Endurance Training • Nearly every sport activity requires some degree of cardiorespiratory , or aerobic, endurance • Develop rational program with understanding of persons current fitness level • ACSM recommends intensity of 60-90% of maximal HR 3 days a week for 20-60 minutes • Be person and sport specific • Use overload and specificity training principles • Vary Program to keep participants motivated

39. Integrating Cardiorespiratory and Flexibility Parameters • Anaerobic training • Energy production of the body in the absence of O2 • Training requires short, intense burst of activity • Should be sport specific • High intensity near maximal exercise is impossible to sustain for long periods of time • Must use rest periods • Interval training can be useful • Not appropriate for those with low level fitness • Events that take 1-5 minutes require aerobic and anaerobic systems • Important to train both systems

40. Integrating Cardiorespiratory and Flexibility Parameters • Flexibility and Stretching Programs • Thought that flexibility and stretching will decrease risk of injury • Not well supported by research • Though many injuries occur when joint is forced beyond its ROM • Flexibility important, however proper warm up proven to be more important • Passive Stretching • Entails no work by individual • Someone takes limb through ROM • Requires training and experience • Active Stretching • Individual uses own body to produce a stretch of particular area • Contract–Relax Stretching • PNF stretch: Uses passive and active participation from individual

41. Integrating Cardiorespiratory and Flexibility Parameters • Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation • Specialized technique of therapy that incorporates muscle spindle stretch and specific movement patterns • Uses 3 movements • Flexion-extension • Abduction-adduction • rotation • Stretching Methods • Static stretching • Joint moved to point where stretch is felt and position is held • 30-60Seconds Holds

42. Integrating Cardiorespiratory and Flexibility Parameters • Stretching Methods • Ballistic stretching • Involves bouncing movements • Difficult to perform safely because bouncing fires Golgi Tendon Organs in muscle • Causes muscle to reflexively contract • Can cause damage to muscle • Dynamic Stretching • Stretching through specific movements • Shown to be best method of warm up • Stretches muscles • Activates other muscles • Addresses balance and coordination • Increases body and intramuscular temperature • Addresses neuromuscular system