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Chapter 3 American Military Policy 1783-1860

Chapter 3 American Military Policy 1783-1860. Beginnings of America’s Professional Military. Theory & Reality in conflict : Uneven military policy for first 75 years Militia favored in theory by majority of Americans Not supported in reality to fight its wars

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Chapter 3 American Military Policy 1783-1860

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  1. Chapter 3American Military Policy1783-1860

  2. Beginnings of America’s Professional Military • Theory & Reality in conflict: • Uneven military policy for first 75 years • Militia favored in theory by majority of Americans • Not supported in reality to fight its wars • NTL US citizen soldiers held own in early going: • Native American Hostilities => thepush westward • War of 1812(with qualifications) • Mexican War (1846-1847) => (validates USMA)

  3. Congress & A Peacetime Army • Role of Congress: • Lip Service paid to theory of “citizen soldier” Militia • But no real support or funding for Militia • Tacit acceptance of regular Army & officer corps • Congress initially rejectsWashington’s Four point program proposal to establish a small professional standing army • New Constitution allays many of Congress’s concerns • Washington’s model is finally adopted (with modification) • USMA is established in 1802 • Gradually Officers view service as long life calling: • Result: commit to longer careers • Develop more serious professional outlook • Form close relationships • Institutional identity developed • Military traditions take shape • Honored by those who follow

  4. Impact of French Revolution • America ambivalent & divided • Praised revolutionary ideal vs. deplore radical excesses • Divided primarily along party & regional lines • Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans for French • Pro-democracy in line with core party principals • Hamilton's Federalists for British • Party for law & order of a strong central government • Official American Government position? • Neutrality • Economic impact: • Brits blockade French ports & attack shipping at sea • French employ Privateers & raiders • America trades with both & is attacked by both

  5. Impact of Royal Navy • British Navy most effective in control of seas • Capture 250 American Merchants trading with France • Force America to agree to British treaty demands • America promised to comply with British embargo terms • Brits promise to abandon frontier posts they still occupy • French reaction: seize American ships • America caught in middle (but Brits have upper hand) • 1789-1800: undeclared Quasi-war with French ensues • Congressional reaction: • Builds 54 warships & makes USN “first line of defense” • Also conducts operations against Barbary Pirates (SW)

  6. War of 1812 • Background & Overview • Brits inflict greatest harm to US trade & freedom of seas • Embargo Act major failure & very unpopular • Political & regional division (NE vs. SW) on war • Strong British provocation & impressments take toll • Madison concludes war with Canada necessary • Key way to get Britain’s attention: freedom of the Seas • America very divided and unprepared for war • Congress declares war anyway • War of 1812 summary (Map overview)=>

  7. War of 1812 – Map overview

  8. War of 1812- Northern Theater Strategy • Strategy formulated for invasion of Canada Obstacles to executing above strategy?

  9. Obstacles to Strategy’s Execution • New England a major obstacle to its execution • No political support for war • No Militia mobilized by NE states for Federal Gov. • NE Militia held for local use only • West eager for war but lack logistics support • Major challenge: • Administrative problems • How to equip, feed, & manage its Militia • Impact on initial American Operations in North?

  10. Initial American Operations • Early American operations poorly supported & executed • Most result in disaster or are aborted • American poor leadership, training, & lack of coordination among commanders • Courage lacking in some cases • Gen William Hull surrenders 2000 at Detroit • BG J. Winchester at Battle of Frenchtown • British repel Americans & go on offensive • Capture Detroit & threaten Michigan & Ohio river valley • On Niagara Front- mostly stalemate • Few exceptions to American defeat: • Early US Navy Ops in ocean to protect American trade & harass Brits • Later in NW: Perry at Put-in-Bay • MG Harrison retook Detroit & defeat Brits & Tecumseh in Battle of Thames • (Destroyed Brit-Indian alliance)

  11. Major British Advantage • British Control of the Sea: • Blockade American Ports for re-supply & reinforcement • British enjoy all above plus transportation & operational support

  12. British Strategy & Operations • Three major British Offenses conducted during war: • 1. Attempt from Canada via Lake Champlain • But U. S. Navy blocks British advance • Commodore Macdonough defeats British squadron on Lake Champlain • With his LOC threatened, Gen Prevost orders his Army of 10K to return to Canada • 2. Chesapeake Offense – • Burn Capitol & White House • Fail to seize key port of Baltimore (US privateer base) • 3. Mississippi via New Orleans • Jackson blocks & defeats

  13. 2. British Chesapeake Offense • 24 August Gen Ross, supported by Admiral Cockburn, attack & defeat American force blocking British advance on Washington at Battle of Bladensburg • Burn Capitol & White House & other public buildings around Washington & then withdraw • Ross then moves his Army up Chesapeake to threaten Baltimore • 12 Sep he defeats US force at North Point • Ross is killed by American sharpshooter • A 25 hour Naval bombardment of Fort McHeny fails & blocks British Navy advanceto support Army’s attack on Baltimore • “Our flag was still there…” Francis Scott Key • Failure to seize key port of Baltimore enabled continued operation by privateers

  14. 3. Mississippi viaNew Orleans • 50 British ships & 5300 troops arrive 13 Dec 1814 off New Orleans gulf coast from Jamaica • Troops disembark to barges & land on the Gulf coast • To get to New Orleans Brits must get past Jackson’s defenses south of city • British attack Jackson’s well fortified position & are repulsed • After several initial engagements Brit General Pakenham launches assault on Jan 1815 against main defense on East & a secondary attack on West side held by Gen David Morgan • Americans block & repulse British • British suffer 2000 CAS to 70 US • Treaty of Ghent had officially ends war six weeks before • Why do Brits decide to end the War?

  15. Decision to End War of 1812 • Brits end war soon after Napoleon defeated • Lake Champlain Offensive turned back by USN • Brits conclude they can’t win decisively • Wellington: “Americans have no ‘center of gravity’” • Most important: Napoleon defeated- • “Causi bellum” eliminated • Peace settlement (Treaty of Ghent) • Status quo antebellum (?) • Only real losers in War of 1812? • Impact of war on American Military?

  16. Post War Lessons Learned for Military • American Army & Navy status now secured • NTL- Several flaws revealed as a result of war: • For Defense of Nation- Militia system is unreliable • Regular Army better, but still plagued by problems • Poor leadership during early stages of war identified • Admin & logistic support deficient • War Department require major overhaul • As result: Nation makes first serious attempt to reform its Armed Forces=>

  17. Early Attempts at Professionalism • Primary job of Military after 1815: • Frontier constabulary(primarily out West) • Strategic purpose of military: (IAW Congress’ priorities) • 1. Defend Nation from invasion=> strong but small Navy • Considered adequate for the job • 2. Establish fortification system along coast & inlets • Objective: Delay invaders until Militia formed and deployed • Debate continues: Militia vs. standing Army: • SECWAR John C. Calhoun’s proposed reforms: • Standing regular Army => proposed Cardre system • Army of 6313 readily expandable to 11,558 Officers & men • Peacetime Units at half strength => doubled in size of war • Employ Federal Volunteers and 288 Officers to fill out billets

  18. Reform’s Impact on Officer Corp • Army life becomes more stable • Officers view army more as a career & remain longer • Take their profession of arms more seriously • Military competence improves as it’s professionalized • U. S. Military Academy revived and reformed • Established standards and traditions • Captain Thayer responsible for key reforms • Acts as first superintendent=> 4 year curriculum • Emphasis on Engineering and Math • Established Cadet ranks to stress leadership

  19. Other Professional Trends • Other indicators of a more professional institution: • More efficient Bureau system established • Also adopted the Navy • Mid-grade professional military schools • Arty at Fort Monroe & Infantry at Fort Leavenworth • Professional Journals on Tactics & equip. reform • Opened debate on how to improve Army (later Navy) • Military support for Nation’s economic expansion: • Indian pacification out West • Distracts from professional development • Deepen harbors, survey turnpikes, Charts & Navaids, exploration

  20. Military Professionalism & Politics • Military professionalism from political standpoint: • Regular Army still suspect in eyes of many Americans • Firm belief that any patriot can lead an army prevails • Theoretical vice actual support for militia continues • Poor uniform training, weapons, equipment • Lack of adequate funding support from the states • Volunteer Militia form to fill void but lack basic support • Clubs and fraternal associations built around martial ceremony • Mostly dash but potential source of manpower in emergency • De facto reliance on small regular force in reality • Citizen soldiers supplement regular army manpower • Old attitude prevails: patriots just as capable as pros

  21. Mexican War - Map Overview

  22. Mexican War (U.S. Strategy) • Project Military power into North Mexico • Concentrate on areas coveted by Polk admin • Occupy California and New Mexico • Hold Northern Mexican provinces as “bargain chips” • Impose settlement on Mexico favorable to U.S. • Aims of above strategy proved difficult to achieve • Required modification=> shift center of gravity south • Also domestic politics intrudes into American FP • Democrats and Southern region of U.S. for war • Whigs & anti-slave Democrats of NE against war • Slavery becomes the underlying issue of Mexican War

  23. Northern Campaign • Gen Taylor crosses Rio Grande & captures Matamoras • Ordered by Polk to Monterrey • Suffers heavy casualties • Accepts 8 week Truce but forced by Polk to abrogate it • By Dec 1846 Americans control Northern Mexico • Including California and New Mexico • Mexican reaction? • Refuse to give in • Recall American strategic aim?

  24. Scott’s Campaign (1847) • US GrandStrategic aim: find & seize Mexico’s center of gravity • General Winfield Scott’s campaign in South: • Scott lands 14K Army + 300 USMC at Veracruz & captures it • Then marches 225 miles thru Sierra Madre to capture Mexico City • (the new designated Mexican center of gravity) • Effective tactics & innovation employed: • Meticulous planning of professional USMA officer corps pays off • Coordinated amphibious landing- surf boats built and used IAW plan • “Combat loaded” equipment saves time • Landing at Veracruzunopposed & falls after brief siege

  25. Battle of Cerro Gordo • From Veracruz on to Mexico City: • 40 miles inland to west Army encounters Sierra Madre • Rugged, rocky & difficult path - perfect for enemy to interdict • Santa Annablocks Scott’s path • Scott’sengineers recon & search for way around to enemy rear • Brief but sharp battle ensues-> Mexicans fall back in disorder • Santa Annafalls back in disarray – later to hold another defensive choke point along route

  26. Prelude to Final Assaults • Following delay to accommodate departure of 7 Regiments • Volunteer enlistments up & insist on returning home • Scott continues on to Mexico City following delay • Again encounters enemy’s attempt to block his path • Innovative tactics work around blocking attempts • Replay of Cerro Gordo again and again • Close in on primary objective with confidence • Army at its best and most effective to date

  27. Final Assault- Mexico City • Scottcontinues his advance into Mexico City • Bombards then assaultsChapultepec Castle • Mexican cadets try to defend • Enemy battery is captured • City falls 14 Sept 1847 • 11k US defeat 30K Mexicans • Defeat well entrenched troops • Modified strategy validated • Center of gravity finally identified • Major political impact • US victory forces negotiations • Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo • CA, NM, AZ to US

  28. Results, Lessons Learned, & significance • Important “firsts” for American military forces: • Power projection abroad – success • Mobilize and maintain Army in foreign country • Key role of US Navy • Transport, support, & re-supply (like Brits during 1812-14) • Troops acquitted themselves well • Defeat larger force; acted with courage • Officer leadership displayed (especially USMA grads) • West Point training & development paid off • Especially Evident during Scott’s campaign • Tactically flexibility & innovation of officer engineers • Total American causalities: 7700 Dead • (6800 to disease/900 KIAs)

  29. New Technological Developments & Adaptations • New energy invention application (sea & land): • Steam Engine applied to potential military use • Railroad & Steamship • (Expand trade & shorten time for transportation) • Problems to overcome: ($, fuel, maintenance, payload) • Inefficient use of energy & Vulnerability (paddlewheel) • Advances in Naval Artillery: • Dahlgren’s 11” muzzle load smooth bore: • Modified coke bottle shape (absorb blast) • Fired shell (wood) or solid shot • Critical intermediate step on way to rifled arty • Trend: cannon on steamships (tactical link established)

  30. Ordnance & Weapons Advances • Improvements in Army ordnance & weapons: • Percussion cap –eliminated priming • Rifled Musket – improved accuracy & range • Minnie ball – solves problem of loading rifle quickly • Army adopts rifled musket by mid-1850s • Ignores tactical implications of increased range/fire rate • Would pay heavy price as a result during Civil War

  31. American Strategic Thought • American Strategic Thought & its limitations: • Dennis Hart Mahon & West Point’s Napoleon Club • (Jomini’s “cookbook”) • Fortified active defense strategy & tactics • (then counterattack) • Developed future leaders of Civil War (Hallack & others) • “Keep troops concentrated & alert for surprise” • Practical focus of most mid 19th century Military Officers: • Day to day nitty-gritty details of military tactics & equipment • Strategic Thought left to future strategist • (especially for Navy in late 19th century (A. T.Mahan)

  32. Overall Assessment • Gradual progress toward standing Army: • Focus: pacify western frontier & Indians out West • For War: fill out Army with volunteers (Mexican War) • Established coastal fortifications & defend coasts • Delay invader to permit time to mobilize

  33. Overall Assessment- 2 • Technological improvements achieved: • Land: officers prepared to exploit railroads • To be applied successfully by Confederates at First Bull Run • Adapted rifled musket with Minie ball • Tactical Implications: • Army failed to appreciate tactical implications of rifle • Smooth bore musket vs. rifled musket with Minie ball • 100 vice 400 yard range with higher rate of fire • Kill zone increased by factor of 4 = higher casualties • Especially without tactical adjustment to assault methods • At Sea: Steamships fitted w/Dahlgren’s cannon mod. • Transition link to bigger long range rifled guns on ships

  34. Overall Assessment- 3 • USMA & professional schools established: • Thayer reforms of 1820s improve officer quality • Professional officer corps emerges: • Begin to think of Army as calling • Officers view their profession as a career: • Think more about military art & science as result • Problems would remain: • Militia declined after 1815 • Attempts to fill gap with volunteer Militias & martial clubs • Amateur tradition alive & well for Americans: • Civilian sentiment persisted over standing regular army • Civil War would test amateur tradition & theory to the limit • Anybody can lead men in combat (At least until first shot fired)

  35. Next Assignment: The Civil War Back-up Slides

  36. Forming Peacetime Military (1783-1846) • Factors Pro & Con for peacetime military: • Federalists Party support strong central government • Requires strong professional National force • Washington’s Four point program proposal: • 1. Establish small regular Army • 2. Establish Militia under Federal Government control • Two tiers: Ready Volunteers andCommon Militia • 3. Establish arsenals & armament factories • 4. Establish Military Academies to foster military science • Congressional Response: • Rejects Hamilton’s endorsement & disbands Continental Army • Forms First American Regiment (700 Militia with 1 yr enlistments)

  37. Washington’s Model Prevails • Washington’s model shaped US land force by early 1800s • Still limited Federal control over militia • No volunteer or Federal Select militia act passed • Result:=> emergency requires 90 day mobilization • Also no uniform Federal standards imposed on militia • Impact- State Militias suffer: • Training, organization, regulations, equipment

  38. U. S. Constitution to the Rescue • Constitution’s impact- solves problem: • Eliminates weak confederation government • Article #1 gives Congress power over military • Alleviates Congress’ concern of Presidential power • Divided power between Congress & President • Checks and Balances & Division of Authority • Congress given most explicit power to control military • (see section 8 of Article 1 of Constitution) • Reserves control of Militia to the States (not Feds) • Congress established system of arsenals & arms • 1802: U. S. Military Academy established

  39. Mexican War (Prelude) • Background: U.S. Foreign Policy- manifest destiny • Goal: all of North America • Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon • Florida from Spain • Oregon Territory split with Brits in 1849 compromise • US long covets southwest owned by Mexico • Opportunity presents itself • After Texas Revolution=> • Texans apply for statehood • Annexed by US in 1845 • Impact on US/Mex relations?

  40. Mexican War (US Plans, & Preparation) • American Plans & Prep much improved since 1812 • President Polk directs MG Taylor to deploy to south Texas border • CA Agents, Freemont scouts, & US Navy also pre-position • Take strategic positions on, around, and off West Coast of CA:

  41. Mexican War (Battle ofPalo Alto-May 1946) • Disposition of forces: • Zac Taylor with 2300 vs. Aristawith 6000 • Offsetting Mexican numbers: • Strong leadership of professional officer corps (USMA) • Mexican assaults w/smooth bore muskets & bronze cannon • Versus American cannon fire from fortified position • Battle Execution: • Arista makes two failed frontal attacks then withdraws • Mexican cavalry attempts to flank American position • Piecemeal attacks allows Taylor to shift forces to plug holes via tactical LOCs • Taylor’s Arty in strong defensive positions suppress assaults & Arista withdraws his forces • Battle damage assessment (BDA): • American hold field at cost of 200 causalities • Mexicanswithdraw after suffering 1600 casualties (cas.)

  42. Battle ofBuena Vista(1847) • Meanwhile Santa Anna returns from exile in Cuba • Assumes CINC, then Mexican Presidency • Taylor establishes defensive position with 5K troops at Buena Vista • Santa Anna attacks 22-23 Feb 1847 • Tayloremploys shuttle tactics on interior lines • Again- Plugs holes made by assaulting Mexicans attacking with smooth bore muskets • Americans hold as a result of their effective use of cannon direct fire against attackers • Santa Anna withdraws w/2K cas. vs .700 US cas. • Strategic significance of Buena Vista??? • Was this battle consistent with achieving U.S. aim?

  43. Final Assaults • Scott commences operations w/recon to probe • Search vulnerable points in Santa Anna’s defenses • Employs tactical surprise (deploys arty across Pedregal) • Scott opens attack w/effective field arty bombardment • Shocks Mexican infantry & attacks flanks • Exploits gaps in enemy defenses • Any exception to this tactical approach?

  44. Battle of Molino del Ray • Notable exception: • Battle of Molino del Ray • Frontal assault cost Scott 25% casualties- high cost victory • American self confidence & individual courage carry day • Also Mexican infantry armed with older muskets • Less range and slower rate of fire

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