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Gender Attitudes. Outline. Cultural approaches Why are attitudes changing in Central Europe? Micro-level explanations of gender attitudes. The Modernization Explanation (Inglehart & Norris). Industrialization brings women into the labor market
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Outline • Cultural approaches • Why are attitudes changing in Central Europe? • Micro-level explanations of gender attitudes
The Modernization Explanation (Inglehart & Norris) • Industrialization brings women into the labor market • Educational opportunities rise for women and they begin to participate in government • The postindustrial phase brings a shift toward greater gender equality as women rise in management and gain political influence • Transition from survival to self-expression values (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?)
The Failure of Modernization Theory to Explain this Shift in Central Europe • High female employed existed already under the communist regime • Women had rather equal access to education already under communist rule • People did not have to worry about survival except perhaps in Poland
But not completely wrong • But it is true that women did not yet rise in management or politics • The industrial shift from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy with a large service sector was hindered by the communist regimes • This does not seem sufficient to explain the change
Cultural Differences? • Pfau-Effinger: two countries can have similar policies, but peple will still use them differently • In some societies men are more likely to choose father leaves than in others because they have different conceptions of the role of the father • Duncan: Gendered moral rationalities: what is morally rational is not always economically rational, for example, women might refuse daycare because it goes against their view of what is “proper”
Hakim’s Preference Theory • Individualization process means we cannot group people of one country together • In modern society we have become more individualistic • There are different groups in every country
Hakims 3 Groups • Caring group: will want to stay at home regardless of policies (about 20% of the population) • Career group: wants to have a career and is not interested in having children (about 20% of the population) • Adaptive group: will choose work or career depending on incentives
Implications of Preference Theory • We cannot achieve gender equality because men do not want to change roles, only women • In Sweden, despite policies encouring men to stay at home, few do so • Only the adoptive group can be influenced by policies • The three groups have competing interests, while men all have the same interests, • Thus, men can organize better around their interests
Criticisms • Men are stupid, but not as stupid as Hakim thinks, nor are they as homogeneous • In Sweden men are beginning to take father leaves to a much greater extent (now they take over 20% of the total leave time and almost all fathers go on leave) • Gender equality is also in the interests of many men. She just assumes men think the same, but does not provide evidence • Surveys show big differences among women in different countries • The largest group is adoptive, which means that policies do in fact matter
Attitudes Changing in Central Europe • Slowly beginning to support more gender equality at the theoretical level • Great support for more gender equality at the concrete daily level • “Feminism” becoming more acceptable
Women’s organizations • In Poland: 133 women's organizations • 50 consider themselves to be feminist (38%) • 93 support gender equality (70%) • In CR: 49 organizations • 6 show some support for feminism (6%) • 18 show support for gender equality (37%) • 1995 in CR: none openly supported gender equality, but 2 of 31 came close
Newspaper Articles in the CR • In MF there were 15 articles in 2007 using the word “feminism” • Not negative anymore, but there is a defensive tone, the need to show feminists are not radical • Typical to use the term, “I am a feminist, but not a radical feminist….”
Why this change? • The EU gave legitimacy with “gender mainstreaming” • Czechs have more experience living and studying in the West • The development of domestic gender studies • Cooperation with Western and international women’s organizations • Can we call these openings of the political opportunity structure? • Beliefs coming from communist legacy not as strong as other beliefs?
Microlevel Analysis • Age • Church • Degree of religiosity • Educational Level • Gender
Age • Generational difference: younger people have more post-modern values • Today’s women have greater career opportunities • Younger men are more interested in spending time with their children
Church and Degree of Religiosity • The Catholic Church has traditionally supported the “nuclear family” and “traditional” roles • But this traditional family only existed for a very short time in our history • In agricultural society women worked, as did children and the family was extended • Degree of religiosity is important (not in Wilcox’ article) because in a country like Poland, almost everyone is Catholic, but not everyone is as religious • In the USA evangelical pastors have been very conservative • In Poland the degree of religiosity is not significant in explaining attitudes
Educational Level • Those with a higher education are more supportive of gender equality • Women with higher education want equal chances • Men with higher education often chose partners who are higher educated and want to have careers • Educational levels are increasing, as is support for gender equality
McDonald’s incoherence theory in the industrially advanced countries the conflict between norms supporting high levels of gender equity in individual-oriented social institutions (like education system and labor market) and sustained gender inequality in family-oriented social institutions (in caring and nurturing and household maintenance) has caused fertility rates to drop.
Gender differences • Women obviously have a greater incentive to support equality • But in America more men than women supported ERA
Conclusions • Attitudes toward gender equality are becoming more positive • This is partially due to post-modernization and to the development of the international discourse • All micro factors point to an increase in support for gender equality (the new generation and higher educated are more positives as are the more secular) • Life is becoming increasingly more difficult for men who want to oppress women and hate their children