Objective: Have a working knowledge of the relationship between the vegetative cover in a watershed and water yield and

1. Objective:Have a working knowledge of the relationship between the vegetative cover in a watershed and water yield and water quality

2. Terms • Hydrograph • Graph of water discharge over specified time period • Base flow • Rate of discharge in a stream where only the throughflow and groundwater flow from subsurface aquifers contribute to the overall flow. • Storm flow • Rate of discharge during and after storm event

4. USGS Gauging Stations • http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/uv?cb_00060=on&cb_00065=on&format=gif_default&period=31&site_no=03335500

5. Terms • Transpiration • Interception • Stem flow

6. Terms • Insolation • Direct or diffused shortwave solar radiation that is received in the Earth's atmosphere or at its surface. Effect of angle on the area that intercepts an incoming beam of radiation. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6i.html

7. Perched water tables http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/AGEN521/epadir/grndwtr/perched.html

8. Relationship of Cover Type to Stream Flow • Data for eastern U.S. limited to Appalachian Highlands • Coweeta, NC • Fernow, WV • Leading Ridge, PA • Hubbard Brook, NH • Walker Branch, TN

9. Why would watershed research be conducted in Appalachians? • Small catchments easily identified • Can install weirs at catchment outlets • Precipitation adequate to maintain continuous vegetative cover

10. Measurements of Interest • Changes in vegetative cover • Water volume yield over time • Before change • After change • Water temperature • Nutrient level Oregon, Umpqua National Forest, Joe Hall Creek/Elk Creek confluence http://www.singingfalls.com/stream/engineering/temperature.html

11. Treatments • Clearcutting • Logs not removed • Logs removed • Whole tree removed • Harvest followed by deadening of all vegetation • Size and distance of roads • Partial cuts - strip cutting • Conversion to grass with succession • Conversion to Pinus, sp.

12. Use of Results • Manage for water supply • Make silvicultural prescriptions based on water and nutrient impacts • Engineer drainage structure • Estimate impact of road and skid trail construction WLH, Northcentral PA

13. Impact of Forest Cutting • Reduced transpiration • Reduced interception by canopy • Catches precipitation and increases evaporation • Resulting in • Increased storage • More water for remaining plants • Greater water movement within soil • Greater baseflow

14. Range of change in yield • Increase yield by as much as 40 cm (15.7 in.) • Reduce by as much as 20 cm (7.9 in.) • Suppression of regenerating foliage • Increases water yield and delays return to base level • Replacement by evergreen forest • Reduces yield below original base level with deciduous forest cover

17. First Year Increase Following Harvest • Proportional to BA removed • 13% threshold value • Also function of energy available for evapotranspiration, (insolation index) • Slope • Aspect • Latitude

19. Affects relative to total removal • Riparian forest buffers • May increase yield proportionally less than same size area left unharvested away from waterway • Strip cutting • May increase yield proportionally less than expected because of increased water availability

20. Evergreen vs. Deciduous • Rate of evapotransporation about same • Evergreens have longer period of evapotranspiration • For evergreens interception lasts all year WLH, Central Idaho, June, 7,000 ft. elev.

21. Perched water tables • No experimental data available • Increase water table, depending on topography • Seep areas would remain wet longer • Would be greater potential evapotranspiration because of higher water table • Partial cutting would affect stream flow less than predicted by models

22. Other impacts • Low flow rate • Should increase low flow rates at end of growing season • Less affect with shallow soils • Peak flow rate • Less available storage in soil because of reduced drainage • Greater percentage of summer and fall storms appears as stream flows • Snow melt accelerated, increasing peak flow • Roads and skid trail increase peak flow

23. Other Impacts • Soil Moisture • Issue for regeneration and wildlife cover and food • Change depends of insolation, soil properties, etc. • Potential for increase • Stream temperature • Assume removal of streamside vegetation • May increase maximum summer temperature by up to 4-6 degrees • Riparian forest buffers eliminate this potential problem

24. Other Impacts • Sedimentation • Eastern deciduous forest • Primary sources are roads, skid trails and landings • Usually small impact on stream turbidity and bed loading, but great enough for regulatory action • Type of harvest has impact because of differences in road system • Western forests • Additional sources are site preparation • Slash piling and burning • Solution • Limit harvest in buffers • Don’t drive or skid through streams

26. Affect on Nutrients • Nutrient losses from harvesting difficult to measure • Direct measures of soil nutrients difficult • Use changes in nutrient levels in waterway as indicator • Intensive whole tree harvest increase nutrient removals by factor of 2 to 4. • Affect on plant growth depends on • overall nutrient level, • amount of denitrification from decomposition • Recharge from atmosphere and subsoil • Increases not enough to cause algal bloom or other negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems • Issue is sedimentation which also carries nutrients into water

27. Synopsis of water related silvicultural impacts • See Figure 7, Stone, Wank, and Hornbeck, Proceedings 5th North Am Forest Soils Conf., Colorado State Univ,m Aug 1978 (handout in class)