Governmental Systems:

1. Governmental Systems: Democracy and Nondemocracy

2. Broad Taxonomies: The Science of Classification • How do you classify a political system? • Distinguish by how key political structures are organized, regional location, economic development? • Taxonomic schemes classify by criteria that are inclusive, mutually exclusive and consistent

3. Democracy and Nondemocracy • Common classification, but confusing • Dependent on socialization and environment—many countries call themselves “democratic” • Must define characteristic differences between democracy and dictatorship • Not as easy as it first may look

4. Democracy: Fluid and Varied Governing Process Democratic Governments: indicate relative open relationship between society and government. Nondemocratic Governments: indicate relative closed relationship between society and government. Democracy: sovereignty rests with the people; also known as popular sovereignty. • 1. genuinely free and open elections in which people can select or reject their governmental representatives • 2. access to government by the people in-between elections • 3. adoption and implementation of laws and policies that mirror people’s preferences and interests

5. Government and Governance • Government: consists of institutions responsible for making collective decisions for society. More narrowly. Government refers to the top political level within such institutions—that is to presidents, prime ministers, and department heads. • Governance:refers to the process of making collective decisions, a task in which government may not play a leading, or even any, role. In international relations, for instances, no world government exists to resolve problems but many issues are resolved by negotiation. This is a case of governance without government.

6. Constitution and Constitutionalism • Constitution: sets out the formal structure of government, specifying the powers and institutions of central government, and the balance between central and other levels of government. In addition, constitutions specify the rights of citizens and in so doing create limits on and duties for the government. • Constitutionalism:a determinate, stable legal order in which the power of the rulers is effectively limited by a system of laws that must be obeyed.

7. Conceptual Legal Distinctions • Natural and Positive Law: refers to normative principles of right conduct which may not be reflected in ‘positive law”, the law of the land. • Basic and Statute Law: Basic Law is entrenched in that it overrides ordinary statute law passed by the legislature. Constitutions are often expressed in basic law. • Civil and Criminal Law: Civil law resolves disputes between, and is initiated by, private persons. Criminal law covers acts that the state has defined as illegal and which it is therefore willing to prosecute.

8. Constitutional and Administrative Law • Constitutional and Administrative Law: Constitutional Law sets out the structure of government and the rights of citizens. Administrative Law covers the exercise of power by the bureaucracy, particularly in relation to citizens. • Roman and Common Law: Roman Law is an extensive system of codified law which is prevalent in continental Europe. It dates back to Justinian, Roman Emperor 527-65. European Union Law is influenced by Justinian codes. Common Law is more flexible and based on the establishment of legal precedents; it evolves from judges decisions in particular cases. These judgments create predictability by setting influential precedents.

9. Forms of Democracy • Democracy: Rule by the people or self-rule. • Direct democracy: citizens make decisions themselves, without representative institutions. This interpretation stresses the value of public discussion, both for the participants and for the quality of decisions. 1. referendum: proposed law drafted in the legislature. It is submitted to the voters for their direct approval or rejection. 2. initiative: a grassroots activity which—through the collection of a certain number of signatures—allows electors to initiate a referendum on a given topic. 3. recall: allows a certain number of voters to demand a referendum on whether an elected official should be removed from office

10. Liberal Democracy • Liberal Democracy: 1. representative government: What type of electoral system (procedures of translating votes into seats)? • A. scope of elected office (which offices are elected?) • B. Extent of franchise (who can vote?) • C. Voter turnout (Who does vote?) • 2. popular/majority will is subject to legal or constitutional limits to protect minority and individual rights • 3. Limited government: public sphere is limited; governmental authority can only be exercised within specified areas

11. Democracy Disaggregated Five Central Democratic Criteria: • Participation: selection of Governmental Officials Are individuals free to campaign and run for office? Are citizens allowed to vote and do votes count equally regardless of race, gender, age? • Pluralism:plurality of opinions allowed to freely circulate in society; ideally based on a market-model of open competition and diffused power. How free are groups and opinions allowed to circulate and gather followers? • Developmentalism: extent to which individuals assume and are consciously aware of their civic duties and obligations as a citizen; development of intellectual self-awareness and knowledge about the issues and political processes within a political system. How open is the process of political socialization?

12. Criteria of Democracy Continued • Protection: what constitutes thedemocracy’s commitment to limit governmental power in order to avoid unchecked centralization and abuse of power? Democracy is founded on a certain level of self-governance. What limits on the arbitrary expansion of governmental authority into private sphere of individuals exist? How much does the state interfere into the private lives of individuals? 5. Performance: how well does the government serve its people economically and politically? Does the government effectively guarantee minimum living standard for all? How are governmental resources and economic wealth distributed in society? Does the government effectively respond to societal problems and issues? Income levels? Literacy rates? Access to Medical Care? Levels of Crime?

13. Democracy as a Dynamic Concept • democratic practice requires fluidity within system: Questions that need to be raised: • How does democratic practice increase or decrease within the same country over time? • How are linkage institutions reconfigured and changed to allow people to more effectively connect with government? • How do changes in laws and voter turnout reflect democratic practice?

14. Democratic Components May Conflict with Each Other • Protective and Performance Criteria of Democracy may affect each other; increasing one may decrease the other and visa versa. For example: Energy Policy in U.S. and The Netherlands • U.S.’s Policy: higher industry efficiency standards and voluntary participation in clean air projects • Netherland’s Policy: heavy taxation on automobiles and gasoline Policy Analysts: US carbon emission will increase in future while Netherland’s energy policy will likely reduce future emissions

15. Democratic Practice involves more than Government • Existence of democracy requires social institutions that support and foster democratic practice throughout society Civil Society: • voluntary civil and social organizations that function outside the state (public sphere) and the market (commercial arena) and beyond the smallest political group—the family. • Civil societies are generally comprised of organizations such as registered charities, development non-governmental organizations, community groups, women's organizations, faith-based organizations, professional associations, trade unions, self-help groups, social movements, business associations, advocacy groups etc.

16. Democracies have diverse Forms • Existence or absence of written constitutions • Two-party or multi-party system • Electoral process for selecting candidates running for political office • Judicial review –the ability of a Court to declare acts of the executive or legislative branches as unconstitutional--is not present in all democracies • Presidential versus Parliamentary System

17. Characteristics of Stable Democracies • Regular, competitive elections • Open and competitive organization of political parties and interest groups • Protection of civil rights and civil liberties of the individual • Relatively high standard of living • Widespread access to public education, medical care • Technologically advanced and sophisticated • Empirical Examples: U.S., Germany, France, Britain, Japan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland

18. The Political Executive • Executive: the political tier at the apex of government. It is charged with directing the nation’s affairs, supervising how policy is carried out, mobilizing support for its goals and providing both ceremonial and crisis leadership. In liberal democracies, the executive takes 3 forms: • Presidential • Parliamentary • Dual Executive

19. Presidential System • Executive and legislature are elected in distinct, separate elections for a fixed term • Executives cannot be removed by votes of no confidence • Executive power is separated from legislative power Advantages of System: • President’s fixed term provides stability • Broader citizen participation in electing executive and legislative representatives • Legislature is not charged with supporting or bringing down a government thus enabling it—in principle—to judge bills on merit • Separation of powers encourages limited gov’t and thus protects liberty • Presidents are elected by the country at large, taking a national perspective on public policy

20. Disadvantages of Presidential System • Danger of deadlock when executive and legislature disagree • Fixed terms of office are too inelastic—everything is rigid, specified, dated • A one or two-term limit wastes the experience and ability of a good president. Not infrequently, presidents seek to amend the constitution so as to continue in office • Only one party can win presidency; everyone else loses • Politicians with public appeal to win elections are often political outsiders who make poor chief executives • Unrealistic expectations are placed on one individual

21. Empirical Examples of Presidential Systems • Afghanistan • Argentina • Bolivia • Brazil • Chile • Colombia • Costa Rica • Cyprus • Dominican Republic • Ecuador • El Salvador • Guatemala • Haiti • Honduras • Indonesia • Iraq Kenya Mexico Nicaragua Nigeria Panama Peru Philippines Republic of China Seychelles South Korea Sri Lanka Suriname Tanzania Uganda United States Uruguay Sierra Leone Zambia

22. Parliamentary Government • Legislature selects executive leadership • Head of government (called prime minister, premier, or chancellor) and the cabinet can be removed by votes of no confidence and new elections may be necessitated • Executive and legislative powers are combined-not separated • Roles of Head of State (symbolic representative of state) and Head of Government (wields political power) are usually distinct

23. Party System and Parliamentary Government • Single party government (Britain) • Coalition Government (throughout Western Europe) 1. these governments can be unstable; in Italy and France there were periods where governmental tenure in office was measure in months, rather than years Constructive vote of no confidence: requires an assembly to select a new prime minister before it can dispose of the incumbent. The purpose of this rule is to reduce governmental instability where coalitions are the norm. Germany, Hungary

24. Who Governs: Cabinet, Prime Minister, or Ministers? • Cabinet Government: the cabinet determines policy, with ministers and even the prime minister acting within a collegial framework (Finland) • Prime Ministerial Government: The Prime Minister is the dominant figure, using the cabinet to announce decisions and dealing directly with individual ministers (Germany) • Ministerial Government: Ministers take major decisions within their specialist areas, with little overall co-ordination (Italy’s First Republic: 1947-1992)

25. Parliamentary Examples: Unicameral and Bicameral • Unicameral: • Vietnam • Ukraine • New Zealand • Serbia • Sweden • Bangladesh • Bicameral • Nigeria • Australia • Austria • Germany • Canada • Belgium • European Union • India • Ireland • Spain

26. Dual Executive or Semi-Presidential Systems • Combines an elected president performing political tasks with a prime minister who heads a cabinet accountable to parliament. • Prime minister is usually appointed by president • Prime minister is responsible for day-to-day domestic government (including relations with the assembly) • President retains an oversight role, responsibility for foreign affairs, and can usually take emergency powers • Prominent Examples: France, Finland, Russia, Republic of China (Taiwan) , Zimbabwe