Anthropogenic Impacts on the Deep-Sea

1. Anthropogenic Impacts on the Deep-Sea Tyler Boucher Amy Walsh December 2nd. 2009

2. Topics of Interest • Petroleum in the Deep Sea • Deep Sea mining for petroleum • Potential for waste disposal in the Deep Sea • Specific examples of anthropogenic impacts • Potential for Deep Sea mining of manganese nodules • Conservation efforts

3. Petroleum in the Deep Sea • 5-6 million tons of oil enters the ocean/yr. • Hydrocarbons • Direct toxicity • Behavioural changes • Tissue damage • Deep Sea organisms may handle toxins in an alternative manor

4. Petroleum • Majority of hydrocarbons have an anthropogenic origin • Other origins are possible http://www.javno.com/slike/slike_3/r1/g2007/m12/x130157919533394253.jpg

5. Transportation of petroleum • Petroleum can be transported a number of ways: • Spreading • Evaporation • Dissolution • Emulsification • Photochemical modification • Biological ingestion and excretion • Tar ball formation • Interaction of petroleum with ice

6. Water Mass Transport • Pollutants move with the body of water • North Atlantic • Weddell sea • Circumpolar Antarctic • Rip currents and turbidity flows can carry sediments and associated oil to the deep sea http://www.noao.edu/education/gsmtf/img/currents.gif

7. Biological Transportation • Transport by fecal pellets • Transport by exoskeletons • Transport by vertical migrators http://www.ecoscope.com/meganic5.jpg

8. Interactions between petroleum and particulate matter • Formation of solid or liquid particles of hydrocarbons • Sorption of hydrocarbons • Flocculation of suspended , colloidal or dissolved hydrocarbons • Formation of solid or liquid particles of hydrocarbons • Sorption of hydrocarbons • Flocculation of suspended , colloidal or dissolved hydrocarbons http://www.chemistryland.com/ElementarySchool/BuildingBlocks/hydrocarbonsMore.jpg

9. Biological effects • Microorganisms • Fish and crustaceans • Metabolism • Physiology

10. Potential for deep-sea mining of Petroleum • Crude Oil – hydrocarbons • Heating of OM over geological time scales • Oil Reservoirs need: • Source rock rich in hydrocarbons • Porous and permeable reservoir rock • Cap rock (seal) • Hydrocarbons trapped in porous reservoirs, liquids can be mined

11. 560,000,000 tons of oil mined from the ocean/yr. • Potential in 3 offshore oceanic provinces = 26% of world’s oceans • 1. Continental Slopes • Type A • Type B • Type C • Type D • Type E • Type F Emery, 1979

12. 2. Small Deep Marginal Basins • Convergent continental margins • Origin from subsidence of area between island arc and adjacent continent (Bering Sea, Mediterranean Sea) • High OM, sedimentation rates, abundant coarse-grained sediments = Excellent source and reservoir beds • 3. Continental rise • High amounts of sediment accumulation from turbidity currents and pelagic “raining down”

13. Potential waste disposal • Nuclear power is abundant and inexpensive • Resulting radioactive waste is dangerous • Radioactive waste is increasing • Isolation of radioactive waste is necessary • Waste has a long half-life • Disposal can be an issue • The ocean could provide a solution to the radioactive waste • Inexpensive • Large area

14. The ocean also may also have some disadvantages to this specific waste disposal • Long half-life of radioactive material • Sea water is caustic • Material may be transported to unfavorable regions

15. The ocean may work for burial of waste under the correct conditions: • Geological stability • Low biological productivity • Minimal economic value • Large area • Stable climate • Sediment medium with high retention abilities • Remote area • Under the correct conditions the deposited waste could remain outside of the biosphere for the duration of the half-life

16. Other considerations must be taken into account to make an educated decision • Disturbance from the burial • Heat from decaying waste • What could happen if the waste reaches the biosphere? • Disturbances to organisms • Much more information is needed • Experimentation • May still be too complex to understand fully

17. Trace Metals in Deep Sea Sharks from the Rockall Trough • Vas and Gordon, 1993. • Western edge of European continental shelf • Examined tissue specimens of 13 species of shark from various bathymetric zones • Interested in tissue concentrations of Cu, Mn, Ni http://www.rockall2011.com/resources/Google+Earth+Image+a.jpg

18. Results • Cu • In ¼ of all tissue samples • Highest concentrations in skin tissue samples of upper slope shark species • Relationship between concentration and trophic behaviour • Mn • 22% of all tissue samples • Almost all contained <1.5 µg/g • Highest concentrations in gill and vertebral tissues D. calceus, http://www.mar-eco.no/__data/page/701/nikki.jpg E. spinax, www.naturamediterraneo.com/Public/data3/pierl...

19. Ni • In 45% of all samples • Highest concentrations in skin and vertebral tissue samples • Extremely high in muscle tissue and gonads of D.Calceus. • Little variation with depth • General Trends and Explanations • Concentrations decrease with increasing depth • Higher concentrations in external tissues • Exposure to anthropogenic inputs from land • Vertebrae tissue- only samples with all metals accumulated • Link between calcification and metal uptake? (Wright, 1977).

20. Blindness in Vent Shrimp • Herring et al. (1999) • Rimicaris exoculata and Mirocaris fortunata • Inhabitants of Deep Sea vents • Accustomed to low light settings http://www.sos.bangor.ac.uk/images/research/200/pd5_mirocaris.jpg http://www.whoi.edu/cms/images/lstokey/2005/1/v41n2-white2en_5088.jpg

21. Submersibles equipped with bright lights investigate the vents • Bright lights are damaging to the eyes of the shrimp http://carsmedia.ign.com/cars/image/article/818/818998/mir-submersible-20070910000642879-000.jpg

22. Pink-eyed specimen had rhabdom layer (photoreceptors) • White-eyed specimen were lacking the rhabdom layer Herring, et al., 1999

23. More studies are necessary to confirm the cause of the blindness • All vents visited to date have had submersibles with bright lights • Other factors may be causing the blindness

24. Deep Ocean Mining • Manganese nodules ** • Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn • ~10 kg/m² (Bath and Greger, 1988). • Hydrogenous, biogenic, hydrothermal, diagenetic, & halmyrolitic formation • Few mm.̸million yrs. • Metalliferous muds • Volcanegenic sulphide deposits • Fertilizer resources • Pharmaceuticals – marine bioprospecting Minami-torishima Island, http://www.jamstec.go.jp/jamstec-e/30th/part6/page3.html

25. Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone

26. Potential manganese nodule mining concept (Oebius et al., 2001) • System 1Surface Mining Platform • System 2Lift Pipe • System 3The Miner • Carriers • Collectors • German VWS-Berlin hybrid collector • System 4Waste Water re-circulation • Cloud Oebius et al., 2001

27. Impacts of mining processes • Extraction from bottom • 1000 tons ̸day nodules=4000 tons̸day sediment • Extreme direct disturbance on benthic fauna • Benthic plumes form, suffocation • Transport with currents, widespread effect • Impact in water column • Discharge forms 2nd plume • Limit light penetration, primary production • Affects food chain • Bacterial uptake of oxygen

28. Impacts of mining processes • Could take up to 1000 yrs for communities to be restored • Dumping of metal residues, highly toxic to marine organisms • Acids, toxic metals, trace elements • Long-term exposure to heavy metals • Bioaccumulation • Some proposed mining sites are also fishing locations • Attraction of deep-sea organisms to mining apparatus or plumes • Disrupted spawning • Site selection important http://www.mercuryinschools.uwex.edu/lib/images/curriculum/bioaccumulation.jpg

29. Global Conservation • Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) • Provide refuges for recovery and growth • Entire ecosystems • Build resilient communities, preservation • Increase biodiversity • Increase fishing resources • Strong importance in the deep sea • Unique habitats • Endemic species

30. Global Conservation • 5. Rockall Bank • Upwelling leading to rich planktonic life • 130 fish species • Cold water coral communities • Trawling of deep-water fish a threat • 6. Rockall Trough/Channel • Cold water corals • Rich deep sea fish communities • Carbonate mound fields • 8. BIOTRANS abyssal plain • Deep-sea mud research • Very high benthic fauna diversity http://www.ngo.grida.no/wwfneap/Projects/MPAmap.htm

31. Global Conservation • Need to form rules, regulations, and procedures • Establish regular monitoring program • Suspension of activities in presence of serious environmental harm • Decisions to proceed accompanied with protection plans • International collaborations

32. Additonal References • Emery, K.O. 1979. Potential for deep-ocean petroleum. Ambio Sp. Rep. 6:87-92. • Nature. 398(6723): 116. • Herring, P.J., Gaten, E., Shelton, P.M.J. 1999. Are vent shrimps blinded by science? • Hessler, R.R., Jumars, P.A. 1979. The relation of benthic communities to radioactive waste disposal in the deep sea. Ambio Sp. Rep. 6:93-96. • Hjalmar, T. and G.Shriever. 1990. Deep-Sea Mining, Environmental Impact and the DISCOL project. Ambio, 19(5): 245-250. • Karinen, J.F. 1980. Petroleum in the deep see environment: Potential for damage to biota. Environ. Int. 3(2): 135-144. • Oebius, H.U. et al., 2001. Parameterization and evaluation of anthropogenic marine environmental impacts produced by deep-sea manganese nodules mining. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 48(17-18): 3453-3467 • Vas, P., Gordon, J.D.M. 1993. Trace metals in deep-sea sharks from the Rockall Trough. Mar. Poll. Bull. 26(7): 400-402. • http://my.opera.com/nielsol/blog/2009/09/08/manganese-nodules • http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/iucnmed/iucn_med_programme/marine_programme/marine_protected_areas/regional_work/identifying_sites_for_deep_sea_mpas/ • http://www.ngo.grida.no/wwfneap/Projects/MPAmap.htm