Commonalities of the Synergistic Leadership Theory and Confucian-based Theoretical Frame for Leadership

1. Commonalities of the Synergistic Leadership Theory and Confucian-based Theoretical Frame for Leadership LingLing Yang, ABD Doctoral Fellow stdlxy12@shsu.edu Beverly J. Irby, Ed.D. TSUS Regents� Professor and Associate Dean for Graduate Programs College of Education edu_bid@shsu.edu Genevieve Brown, Ed.D. Dean, College of Education edu_gxb@shsu.edu Sam Houston State University Huntsville, TX A paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Denver, Colorado, May 4, 2010

3. Purpose of Our Study In the era of globalization, educational leaders around the world are increasingly seeking to learn from each other to provide excellence in leadership (Brooks & Miles, 2008). It is of vital importance to emphasize the commonalities among leadership theories as evidenced in diverse cultures. In our study, we attempted to determine commonalities between the synergistic leadership theory (SLT), developed and validated in the United States, and Confucian-based theoretical frame. We believed that such research not only could increase understanding between Western and Eastern leaders and followers, but also could benefit leadership practices in both Eastern and Western contexts.

4. Why We Chose The Synergistic Leadership Theory? The SLT may be described as a twenty-first century leadership theory. It represents postmodernism, gender inclusivity, and cultural relevance. It has been found to be non-hierarchical, nonlinear, situational, contextual, dynamic, holistic, systemic, and transformative (Bamberg, 2004; Kaspar, 2006; Schlosberg et al., 2010; Shapiro, 2009; Trautman, 2000; Truslow, 2004; ). The SLT has multiple vantage points, takes a macro perspective of interaction of four factors (i.e., values, attitudes, beliefs; leadership behaviors; external forces; and organizational structure) (Irby et al., 2002), and holds a holistic view of leadership. Unlike the SLT, other leadership theories have different foci on certain aspects of leadership; did not depict a complete picture of the interactions of leadership behaviors with other factors.

5. Why We Chose The synergistic leadership theory? Most leadership theories prevalent in Western literature, such as, Iowa leadership studies (Lewin, Lippit, & White, 1939), Four-factor theory (Bowers & Seashore 1966), Contingency theory (Fiedler, 1967), and Path-goal theory (Evens, 1970), have not been extensively validated. The SLT has been validated in a variety of contexts across the United States and internationally being confirmed as a useful theory for understanding leadership practices and educational organizations (e.g., Ardovini et al., 2006; Bamberg, 2004; Glenn, 2008; Hernandez, 2004; Holtkamp et al., 2007; Jones et al., 2009; Justice, 2007; Kaspar, 2006; Schlosberg et al., 2010; Taliafero, 2007; Trautman, 2000; Truslow, 2004; Yang, Irby, & Brown, 2008).

6. Why We Chose The Synergistic Leadership Theory? The SLT emphasizes the equal and interconnected relationship and the dynamic interaction among leadership behaviors, external forces, organizational structure, values, attitudes, and beliefs. It is assumed in this theory that an alignment or balanced interaction among all four factors leads to the perceived effectiveness of leaders and to the success of the organization. With regard to alignment or balance, the SLT appears to have similarities with the Confucian theoretical frame.

7.  Confucianism-Based Theoretical Frame Related to Leadership Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teachings. It was developed from the teaching of the early Chinese sage and philosopher Confucius, was based on the ancient Chinese traditions, and was developed further by Mencius and other Neo-Confucianists (Hershock & Ames, 2006). Confucianism includes the following main themes: ren (benevolence, humaneness, love), yi (righteousness), li (rituals), xin (honesty and trustworthy), xiao (filial piety), zhong (loyalty), and shu (reciprocity). Confucian-based theoretical frame related to leadership include, but not limited to benevolence and moral leadership reciprocity and the golden rule harmonious social relationships

8. Commonalities of the SLT to Confucian-based Theoretical Frame Related to Leadership Three commonalities of leadership practices exist between the Western-developed SLT and the Confucianism-based theoretical frame (a) benevolence, (b) postmodernism and (c) harmony. Benevolence As a gender-inclusive leadership theory, the development of the SLT included female leaders and their experience and perspective, yet, it has been validated for both male and female leaders (Schlosberg et al., 2010;Trautman, 2000). The SLT offers a range of leadership behaviors from autocratic to nurturing and a range of organizational structures from a tightly bureaucratic organization to an open, feminist one. The SLT includes leadership behaviors that are traditionally ascribed to females and labeled as caring and nurturing, collective, collaborative, and interactive; these behaviors emphasize reciprocity, mutuality, and relationships (Bensimon & Neumann, 1993; Brunner, 1999; Reagan & Brooks, 1995; Rosener, 1990).

9. Commonalities of the SLT to Confucian-based Theoretical Frame Related to Leadership These leadership behaviors are congruent with Confucius� ren (benevolence, humaneness, Kindness, love). Ren is �the central concept of Confucian ethics and the concept of care� (Li, 2008, p.175). Ren is regarded as the highest moral principle or the virtue of virtues (Bell & Chaibong, 2003). According to Tao (2000), the concept of ren has two meanings, �As a particular virtue, ren refers to the virtues of benevolence and altruistic concern for others. As a general virtue, ren stands for perfect virtue, goodness or moral perfection (Tao 2000: 12)�. Thus, ren encompasses every virtue in a perfect human being, from virtue of benevolence to righteousness, filial piety, loyalty, and courage.

10. Commonalities of the SLT to Confucian-based Theoretical Frame Related to Leadership Postmodernism The SLT, positioned in postmodernism, challenges the hegemony of modernist centralization and marginalization that create privilege and dominance of male leadership and exclude and silence female leaders� views and voices. �does not advocate a binary �either/or� criteria for the existence of new theories over old ones, but merely a co-existence or continuity of theories that are mutually co-dependent� (Irby et al., p. 310).

11. Commonalities of the SLT to Confucian-based Theoretical Frame Related to Leadership Shu (Reciprocity) means �being considerate of others� (Li, 2008, p.181). It has two aspects: Positively, shu demands a man of ren understand the needs of others and care for the development of others (Chan, 2008; Li ,2008). Negatively, shu tells people to follow Confucius� Golden Rule: �Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire� (Confucius, n.d./2002, p. 155). �The reluctance to impose one�s own way on others is a consideration for the integrity of the other� (Tu, 1985, p. 26). The recognition that �the best way for me is not necessarily the best for my neighbor is a psychology essential for the peaceful coexistence of different and even conflicting beliefs� (Tu, p. 26). In this sense, Confucianism assumes that moral and spiritual self-development involves �a multiplicity of ways to be pursued� (Tu, p. 26), and, thus, rejects the exclusivity in ethicoreligious thought.

12. Commonalities of the SLT to Confucian-based Theoretical Frame Related to Leadership Harmony The SLT is relational and inclusive of all components of a leader�s environment. The SLT consists of four factors that relate to and interact with each other. If aligned, the relationships and interactions of the four factors may lead to harmony, with the leader and the organization being perceived as effective and successful. Conversely, if there is a misalignment among the four factors, tension or disharmony that negatively impacts the perceived effectiveness of the leader or organization may occur (Irby et al., 2002). In Confucianism, one of the greatest goals is to achieve harmonious social relationships because the continuation and maintenance of harmonious relationships of members ensures the stability and solidarity of a civil society. All Confucian thoughts, including ren (benevolence, humaneness, love), yi (righteousness), li (rituals), xin (honesty and trustworthy), xiao (filial piety), and zhong (loyalty) aim at promoting ideal social relationships and at achieving a harmonious social structure.

13. Conclusion, Implication, and Recommendation We examined the SLT and Confucian-based theoretical frame related to leadership and discovered three commonalities between them: (a) benevolence, (b) postmodernism and (c) harmony. We recognize and appreciate the common human values shared by both Western and East Asian people because the commonalities not only represent the heritage of human civilization, but they also reflect an interconnection and convergence of Western and East Asian cultures as a result of increased international communications and multinational cooperation. The shared human values and leadership practices guided by these common values are essential components that constitute a harmonious global world and that will contribute to more expansive communications and better understandings between Western and Eastern societies, organizations, leaders, and followers. We suggest that more empirical research be conducted to determine commonalities between Western and East Asian leadership theories and practices in order to promote such communications and understandings.

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