Chapter 27 Section 4: THE OTHER AMERICA

1. Chapter 27 Section 4: THE OTHER AMERICA • In 1962, nearly one out of every four Americans was living below the poverty level • Most of these poor were the elderly, single women and their children, and/or minorities

2. WHITE FLIGHT • 1962, 25% of Americans below poverty level • In the 1950s, millions of middle-class white Americans left the cities for the suburbs • Most white Americans enjoyed the prosperity of the postwar period. • At the same time millions of African American rural poor migrated to the cities • Post WW II–1960, 5 million blacks go from rural South to urban North • The so-called “White Flight” results in loss of businesses, tax payers to cities • Cities can no longer afford to maintain or improve: • schools, public transportation, police and fire departments

3. The Inner Cities Poverty grows rapidly in decaying inner cities Poor economic conditions lead to illness and terrible conditions Urban Renewal Urban renewal—replace rundown buildings with new low-income housing Housing and Urban Development Dept. created to improve conditions Not enough housing built for displaced people The Urban Poor

4. Mexicans Seek Employment Many Southwest Mexicans become U.S. citizens after Mexican War 1942–47, Mexican braceros, hired hands, allowed into U.S. to work When the United States entered World War II, a shortage of farm workers spurred the federal government to create a program in which Mexican braceros were allowed into the United States. The braceros were Mexican workers who came to the United States during World War II to harvest crops. After war, many remain illegally; many others enter to look for work Poverty Leads to Activism

5. Army Pvt. Felix Longoria The Longoria Incident Undertaker refuses funeral services to Felix Longoria, WW II veteran Outraged Mexican-American veterans organize G.I. Forum Unity League of CA registers voters, promotes responsive candidates The Longoria incident involved the refusal of an undertaker to let his funeral home be used for the burial of a Mexican-American War hero. The Longoria incident prompted Mexican Americans to promote political candidates who represented their interests, organize the G.I. Forum, found the Unity League of California. Poverty Leads to Activism

6. Native Americans Continue their Struggle During Depression, U.S. policy of Native American autonomy National Congress of American Indians: civil rights, maintain customs U.S. stops family allotments, wages; outsiders take tribal lands The Termination Policy Termination policy cuts economic support, gives land to individuals The federal government’s Termination policy eliminated federal economic support for Native Americans, discontinued the reservation system, and distributed tribal lands among individual Native Americans. Bureau of Indian Affairs helps resettlement in cities Termination policy is a failure; abandoned in 1963 Poverty Leads to Activism

7. Chapter 27 - Section 4 The Other America Urban renewal – the tearing down and replacing of buildings in rundown inner-city neighborhoods. Braceros – a Mexican laborer allowed to enter the United States to work for a limited period of time during World War II. Termination policy – the U.S. government’s plan, announced in 1953, to give up responsibility for Native American tribes by eliminating federal economic support, discontinuing the reservation system, and redistributing tribal lands.

8. Activism, new legislation, and the Supreme Court advance equal rights for African Americans. But disagreements among civil rights groups lead to a violent period for the civil rights movement. Martin Luther King, Jr., waving to the crowd at the Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington, D.C. (1963). Chapter 29 - Civil Rights

9. Section 1 – Taking on Segregation OBJECTIVES The students will explain how legalized segregation deprived African Americans of their rights as citizens. The students will summarize civil rights legal activity and the response to the Plessy and Brown cases. The students will trace Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, civil rights activities, beginning with the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The students will describe the expansion of the civil rights movement.

10. Activism and a series of Supreme Court decisions advance equal rights for African Americans in the 1950s and 1960s. Section 1 – Taking on Segregation JO ANN GIBSON ROBINSON

11. Plessy v. Ferguson Civil Rights Act of 1875 act outlawed segregation In 1883, all-white Supreme Court declares Act unconstitutional 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling: separate but equal constitutional In 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court rules that a Louisiana law requiring “separate but equal” public accommodations is constitutional. Many states pass Jim Crow laws separating the races Facilities for blacks always inferior to those for whites The decision in Plessy v. Ferguson affirmed the legality of racial segregation and prompted the passage of Jim Crow laws. An African American drinking water at a segregated facility (1939). The Segregation System

12. Segregation Continues into the 20th Century After Civil War, African Americans go north to escape racism North: housing in all-black areas, whites resent job competition A Developing Civil Rights Movement WW II creates job opportunities for African Americans Events such as better access to good jobs during World War II helped set the stage for the civil rights movement. Need for fighting men makes armed forces end discriminatory policies FDR ends government, war industries discrimination Returning black veterans fight for civil rights at home The Segregation System These photos of the public schools for white children (left) and for black children (right) in a Southern town in the 1930s show that separate facilities were often unequal in the segregation era.

13. The NAACP Legal Strategy Professor Charles Hamilton Houston leads NAACP legal campaign Focuses on most glaring inequalities of segregated public education Places team of law students under Thurgood Marshall win 29 out of 32 cases argued before Supreme Court Brown v. Board of Education Marshall’s greatest victory is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka In 1952, Thurgood Marshall, the head of the NAACP’s group of lawyers, argues Brown v. Board of Education before the Supreme Court. In 1954 case, Court unanimously strikes down school segregation In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court declares Segregation unconstitutional. The doctrine relating to public education that was overturned by the Supreme Court in the decision Brown v. Board of Education was “separate but equal”. Challenging Segregation in Court THURGOOD MARSHALL 1908–1993

14. Resistance to School Desegregation Within 1 year, over 500 school districts desegregate Some districts, state officials, pro-white groups actively resist Court hands Brown II, orders desegregation at “all deliberate speed” Eisenhower refuses to enforce compliance; considers it impossible Reaction to the Brown Decision As white students jeer her and Arkansas National Guards look on, Elizabeth Eckford enters Little Rock Central High School in1957.

15. Crisis in Little Rock Since 1948, Arkansas integrating state university, private groups Gov. Orval Faubus has National Guard turn away black students Elizabeth Eckford faces abusive crowd when she tries to enter school Eisenhower has Nat. Guard, paratroopers supervise school attendance In 1957, following the Arkansas governor’s refusal to obey the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, a crisis occurs in Little Rock. President Eisenhower places the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and orders paratroopers into the city. African-American students harassed by whites at school all year 1957 Civil Rights Act—federal government power over schools, voting President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered soldiers to protect African-Americans students trying to integrate a white high school in Little Rock, Arkansas. Reaction to the Brown Decision The National Guard escorting an African-American student from a nearby college through an angry crowd at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas (1957).

16. Boycotting Segregation 1955 NAACP officer Rosa Parks arrested for not giving up seat on bus In 1955, Rosa Parks is arrested for refusing to give up a bus seat to a white man. Rosa Parks helped spark the Montgomery bus boycott. Montgomery Improvement Association formed, organizes bus boycott Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil rights leader and minister believed deeply in the power of nonviolent protests. Elect 26-year-old Baptist pastor Martin Luther King, Jr. leader In 1955, in response, the Montgomery Improvement Association is formed to organize a boycott of Montgomery buses, and Marin Luther King Jr. is elected its leader. Walking for Justice African Americans file lawsuit, boycott buses, use carpools, walk Get support from black community, outside groups, sympathetic whites 1956, Supreme Court outlaws bus segregation The first organized movement by African Americans to fight segregation was the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott. The main type of pressure exerted by the Montgomery Improvement Association in response to segregation on buses was economic pressure. The Montgomery Bus Boycott Rosa Parks being fingerprinted.

17. Changing the World with Soul Force King calls his brand of nonviolent resistance “soul force” civil disobedience, massive demonstrations King remains nonviolent in face of violence after Brown decision From the Grassroots Up King, others found Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Marin Luther King Jr. was a founder and the first president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. In 1957, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference is founder under the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr., for the purpose of carrying out non-violent campaigns against segregation and racism. By 1960, African-American students think pace of change too slow Join Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) In 1960, to make better use of young civil rights workers, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee is founded. Martin Luther King and the SCLC MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. 1929–1968

18. Demonstrating for Freedom SNCC adopts nonviolence, but calls for more confrontational strategy Influenced by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to use sit-ins: refuse to leave segregated lunch counter until served In 1960, members of SNCC use sit-ins to desegregate lunch counters throughout the South. First sit-in at Greensboro, NC Woolworth’s shown nationwide on TV In spite of abuse, arrests, movement grows, spreads to North Late 1960, lunch counters desegregated in 48 cities in 11 states The Movement Spreads Members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee during a lunch counter sit-in.

19. Section 1 Taking on Segregation Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka– a 1954 case in which the Supreme Court ruled that “separate but equal” education for black and white students was unconstitutional. Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) – an organization formed in 1957 by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and other leaders to work for civil rights through nonviolent means. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) – an organization formed in 1960 to coordinate sit-ins and other protests and to give young blacks a larger role in the civil rights movement. Sit-in – a form of demonstration used by African Americans to protest discrimination, in which the protesters sit down in a segregated business and refuse to leave until they are served.

20. Civil rights activists break through racial barriers. Their activism prompts landmark legislation. Section 2 - The Triumphs of a Crusade Three days after being beaten unconscious in Birmingham, freedom rider James Peck demonstrates in New York City to pressure national bus companies to support desegregation.

21. CORE’s Freedom Rides 1961, CORE tests Court decision banning interstate bus segregation Freedom rider tested the Supreme Court decisions banning segregation on interstate bus routes and facilities in bus terminals. Freedom riders—blacks, whites sit, use station facilities together Riders brutally beaten by Alabama mobs; one bus firebombed New Volunteers Bus companies refuse to continue carrying CORE freedom riders SNCC volunteers replace CORE riders; are violently stopped Robert Kennedy pressures bus company to continue transporting riders Riding for Freedom In May 1967, a mob firebombed this bus of freedom riders outside Anniston, Alabama, and attacked passengers as they tried to escape.

22. Arrival of Federal Marshals Alabama officials don’t give promised protection; mob attacks riders Newspapers throughout nation denounce beatings JFK sends 400 U.S. marshals to protect riders Attorney general, Interstate Commerce Commission act: ban segregation in all interstate travel facilities One accomplishment of the Freedom riders was bringing about a federal ban on segregation in all interstate travel facilities. Riding for Freedom

23. Integrating Ole Miss 1962, federal court rules James Meredith may enroll at U of MS James Meredith was the first African-American student to attend the University of Mississippi. James Meredith was the veteran who became the first African American to attend the University of Mississippi. Governor Ross Barnett refuses to let Meredith register JFK orders federal marshals to escort Meredith to registrar’s office Barnett makes radio appeal; thousands of white demonstrators riot Federal officials accompany Meredith to classes, protect his parents Standing Firm

24. Heading into Birmingham April 1963, SCLC demonstrate to desegregate Birmingham King arrested, writes “Letter from Birmingham Jail” TV news show police attacking child marchers—fire hoses, dogs, clubs Continued protests, economic boycott, bad press end segregation Kennedy Takes a Stand June, JFK sends troops to force Gov. Wallace to desegregate U of AL John F. Kennedy used federal marshals to protect the freedom riders on the last leg of their journey and to force the desegregation of the universities of Mississippi and Alabama. NAACP’s Medgar Evers murdered; hung juries lead to killer’s release President John F. Kennedy demanded that Congress pass a sweeping civil rights law but did not live to see it enacted. Standing Firm Martin Luther King, Jr., being arrested in Birmingham, Alabama (1963).

25. The Dream of Equality August 1963, over 250,000 people converge on Washington Speakers demand immediate passage of civil rights bill The goal of the March on Washington (1963) was to persuade Congress to pass Kennedy’s civil rights bill. King gives “I Have a Dream” speech Martin Luther King Jr. spoke of his dream during the March on Washington. More Violence September, 4 Birmingham girls killed when bomb thrown into church LBJ signs Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination because of race, religion, gender The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made segregation illegal in public accommodations. Marching to Washington News photos and television coverage of police dogs in Birmingham attacking African Americans shocked the nation.

26. Freedom Summer Freedom Summer—CORE, SNCC project to register blacks to vote in MS In the summer of 1964, thousands of white college students took part in a campaign to register African American voters in Mississippi. By campaigning to register African-American voters, freedom summer hoped to attract national attention and influence Congress to pass a voting rights act. Robert Moses led the Freedom Summer project in Mississippi. Volunteers beaten, killed; businesses, homes, churches burned Fighting for Voting Rights In the summer of 1964, college students volunteered to go to Mississippi to help register that state’s African-American voters.

27. A New Political Party Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party formed to get seat in MS party Fannie Lou Hamer—voice of MFDP at National Convention—wins support Fannie Lou Hamer was the spokesperson for the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the 1964 Democratic Convention. LBJ fears losing Southern white vote, pressures leaders to compromise MFDP and SNCC supporters feel betrayed Fighting for Voting Rights

28. The Selma Campaign 1965, voting rights demonstrator killed in Selma, AL King leads 600 protest marchers; TV shows police violently stop them Televised scenes of violence during the Selma to Montgomery March convinced Lyndon B. Johnson to ask Congress for swift passage of a voting rights act. Second march, with federal protection, swells to 25,000 people Fighting for Voting Rights

29. Voting Rights Act of 1965 Congress finally passes Voting Rights Act of 1965 Stops literacy tests, allows federal officials to enroll voters The Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated the literacy test and stated that federal examiners could enroll voters denied suffrage by local officials. Increases black voter enrollment The Voting Rights Act of 1965 enable federal officials to register voters. The Civil Rights Act of 1965 was passed during Lyndon B. Johnson’s presidency. President Johnson and Dr. Martin Luther King at the signing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Fighting for Voting Rights

31. Section 2 The Triumphs of a Crusade Freedom riders – one of the civil rights activists who rode buses through the South in the early 1960s to challenge segregation. Civil Rights Act of 1964 – a law that banned discrimination on the basis of race, sex, national origin, or religion in public places and most workplaces. Freedom Summer – a 1964 project to register African-American voters in Mississippi. Voting Rights Act of 1965 – a law that made it easier for African Americans to register to vote by eliminating discriminatory literacy tests and authorizing federal examiners to enroll voters denied at the local level.

32. Disagreements among civil rights groups and the rise of black nationalism create a violent period in the fight for civil rights. Section 3 - Challenges and Changes in the Movement

33. Northern Segregation De facto segregation exists by practice, custom; problem in North De facto segregation is segregation that exists by practice and custom, not by law. A concentration of urban African Americans in slum areas is an example of de facto segregation. De jure segregation is segregation required by law De jure segregation is segregation that results from laws. De jure segregation is the type of segregation addressed by the Civil Rights of 1965. WW II black migration to Northern cities results in “white flight” 1960s, most urban blacks live in slums; landlords ignore ordinances Black unemployment twice as high as white Many blacks angry at treatment received from white police officers African Americans Seek Greater Equality

34. Urban Violence Erupts Mid-1960s, numerous clashes between white authority, black civilians many result in riots Many whites baffled by African-American rage Blacks want, need equal opportunity in jobs, housing, education Money for War on Poverty, Great Society redirected to Vietnam War African Americans Seek Greater Equality Between 1964 and1968, more than 100 race riots erupted in major American cities. The worst included Watts in Los Angeles in 1965.

35. African-American Solidarity Malcolm X—controversial Muslim leader, speaker; gets much publicity Appealing to many African Americans’ anger and frustration over a lack of social and economic power, Malcolm X preached a militant approach to civil rights. Frightens whites, moderate blacks; resented by other Black Muslims New Leaders Voice Discontent Malcolm X holding up a newspaper during a rally in New York City (1963).

36. Nation of Islam, Black Muslims, advocate blacks separate from whites believe whites source of black problems Headed by Elijah Muhammad, Nation of Islam was also known as Black Muslims. The Black Muslim leader who urged blacks to separate from white society was Malcolm X. New Leaders Voice Discontent Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X

37. Ballots or Bullets? Pilgrimage to Mecca changes Malcolm X’s attitude toward whites Splits with Black Muslims; is killed in 1965 while giving speech The former minister of the Nation of Islam who was shot and killed while giving a speech in Harlem was Malcolm X. Not long before Malcolm X’s assassination, a trip to Mecca helped to soften his attitude toward white people. He began preaching a message of “ballots or bullets. New Leaders Voice Discontent Malcolm X is assassinated in Harlem

38. Black Power CORE, SNCC become more militant; SCLC pursues traditional tactics Stokely Carmichael, head of SNCC, calls for Black Power: Stokely Carmichael was a civil rights leader that became impatient with nonviolence and called for “Black Power.” African Americans control own lives, communities, without whites Stokely Carmichael urged the SNCC to stop recruiting whites and to focus on developing African-American pride. Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, and the Black Panthers were associated with the Black Power movement. Dr. Martin Luther King objected to the use of the Black Power slogan because he believed it provoked violence. New Leaders Voice Discontent Stokely Carmichael (1968). The slogan “Black Power” became the battle-cry of militant civil rights activists.

39. Black Panthers Black Panthers fight police brutality, want black self-sufficiency Black Panthers political party was formed to fight against police brutality in the ghetto. Preach ideas of Mao Zedong; have violent confrontations with police Provide social services in ghettos, win popular support Black Power, black nationalism, and community development were advocated by the Black Panthers. New Leaders Voice Discontent

40. King’s Death King objects to Black Power movement, preaching of violence Seems to sense own death in Memphis speech to striking workers Is shot, dies the following day, April 4, 1968 Reactions to King’s Death King’s death leads to worst urban rioting in U.S. history over 100 cities affected A major turning point in the civil rights movements was marked by the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. 1968—A Turning Point in Civil Rights The funeral of Martin Luther King, Jr.

41. Causes of Violence President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed a committee to study the causes of urban violence. Kerner Commission names racism as main cause of urban violence The goal of the Kerner Commission was to study the causes of the 1965 uprising in Watts. According to the Kerner Commission, white racism was the main cause of urban violence. Legacy of the Civil RightsMovement

42. Civil Rights Gains Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibits discrimination in housing The Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned discrimination in selling or renting a home. Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned discrimination in housing. More black students finish high school, college; get better jobs Greater pride in racial identity leads to Black Studies programs More African-American participation in movies, television Increased voter registration results in more black elected officials Legacy of the Civil RightsMovement

44. Unfinished Work Forced busing, higher taxes, militancy, riots reduce white support White flight reverses much progress toward school integration Unemployment, poverty higher than for whites Affirmative action—extra effort to hire, enroll discriminated groups 1960s, colleges, companies doing government business adopt policy Late 1970s, some criticize policy as reverse discrimination One legacy of the civil rights movement that has been challenged in recent years is affirmative action programs. Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement

45. Section 3 Challenges and Changes in the Movement De facto segregation – racial separation established by practice and custom, not by law. De jure segregation – racial separation established by law. Nation of Islam – a religious group, popularly known as the Black Muslims, founded by Elijah Muhammad to promote black separatism and the Islamic religion. Black Power – a slogan used by Stokely Carmichael in the 1960s that encouraged African-American pride and political and social leadership. Black Panthers – a militant African-American political organization formed in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale to fight police brutality and to provide services in the ghetto. Kerner Commission – a group that was appointed by President Johnson to study the causes of urban violence and that recommended the elimination of de facto segregation in American society. Civil Rights Act of 1968 – a law that banned discrimination in housing. Affirmative action – a policy that seeks to correct the effects of past discrimination by favoring the groups who were previously disadvantaged.