RHETORIC

1. RHETORIC

2. DEFINITION OF RHETORIC • a thoughtful, reflective activity (written or spoken) leading to effective communication, including rational exchange of opposing viewpoints • “The faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”- Aristotle • A tool that can be used to appeal to an audience of one or many • to resolve conflicts without confrontation, persuade readers, move people to take action

3. KEY ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC CONTEXT PURPOSE THESIS SPEAKER AUDIENCE SPEAKER (WRITER) (ARISTOTELIAN TRIANGLE) AUDIENCE (READER) SUBJECT (TOPIC)

4. CONTEXT: • rhetoric is always situational • the occasion, time and place rhetoric is written or spoken -can arise from current events or cultural bias • PURPOSE: • the goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve

5. PURPOSES FOR WRITING • EXPRESS AND REFLECT • INFORM AND EXPLAIN • EVALUATE AND JUDGE • INQUIRE AND EXPLORE • ANALYZE AND INTERPRET • TAKE A STAND/PROPOSE A SOLUTION • OTHERS: Win agreement, persuade to take action, evoke sympathy, make someone laugh, inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate, put forth a proposal, secure support, bring about a favorable decision

6. THESIS: • the main idea of your rhetoric must be crystal clear a claim or assertion • SPEAKER (writer) • a writer considers the PERSONA they are writing as poet, comedian, scholar, expert, literary critic, concerned citizen • AUDIENCE • determines style and organization of your piece • what do they know about the subject? What’s its attitude toward the subject?

7. APPEALS TO ETHOS, LOGOS, PATHOS • ETHOS: character -appealing to ethos demonstrates that the author is credible and trustworthy -emphasizes shared values between the speaker and the audience -sometimes a speaker’s reputation immediately establishes ethos -TONE effects ETHOS

8. LOGOS: reason • appeal to LOGOS by offering clear, rational ideas • having a clear, main idea or thesis with specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony as support • ideas must be logical • make assumptions about the reader • acknowledge a counter argument (anticipate opposing views)

9. PATHOS: emotion • appeal to emotion • choose language that engages the emotions of the audience • connotation of words, vivid and concrete description, figurative language, adding visual elements • propaganda (arguments that appeal solely to emotion – usually very weak)

10. ARRANGEMENT OF RHETORIC • THE CLASSIC MODEL • Five-part structure -introduction (exordium) -narration (narration) -confirmation (confirmatio) -refutation (refutation) -conclusion (peroratio)

11. Introduction (“exordium”) • introduces the reader to the subject under discussion • “beginning a web” • can be a single paragraph or several • draws the reader into a text by piquing their interest, challenging them or otherwise getting their attention • often where ETHOS is established

12. narration (“narratio”) • provides factual information and background material on the subject • or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing • level of detail here depends on audiences knowledge of subject

13. confirmation (“confirmatio”) • usually the major part of the text • nuts and bolts: most specific, concrete details of the text • makes strongest appeal to logos

14. refutation (“refutation”) • addresses the counterargument

15. conclusion (peroratio) • can be one paragraph or several • brings the essay to a satisfying close • writer appeals to pathos and reminds reader of ethos established earlier • does not just repeat what has gone before, but brings all the writers ideas together andanswers the question “SO WHAT?” • the last words are most likely what the audience will remember

16. PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT • Writers pick a certain pattern depending on their purpose: • NARRATION • DESCRIPTION • PROCESS ANALYSIS • EXEMPLIFICATION • COMPARE/CONTRAST • CLASSIFICATION • DEFINITION • CAUSE/EFFECT

17. NARRATION • telling a story or recounting a series of events • can be based on personal experience or knowledge gained from reading or observation • usually chronological • includes concrete detail, a point of view, elements such as dialogue • not simply telling an appealing story, but crafting a story that SUPPORTS YOUR THESIS (YOU MUST HAVE A POINT/REASON FOR TELLING THE STORY!! DECIDE WHAT THAT IS, THEN INCLUDE ONLY DETAILS THAT SUPPORT THAT POINT) • often used as a way to draw readers into a subject

18. DESCRIPTION • like narration, but emphasizes the senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds smells tastes or feels. • often used to establish a mood or atmosphere • rarely is an entire essay descriptive (but it can make writing more persuasive: SHOWING IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN TELLING – will make readers empathize with you)

19. PROCESS ANALYSIS • explains how something works, how to do something or how something was done • the key to successful process analysis is CLARITY • use clear, logical language • use transitions that make the sequence of major steps, stages or phases in the process

20. EXEMPLIFICATION • providing examples to make a point • turns a general idea into a concrete one • INDUCTION: a series of specific examples that lead to a general conclusion

21. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST • juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and differences • often used for literary analysis – to compare method, style and purpose of two texts • can be organized subject-by-subject or point-by-point • example: compare/contrast two candidates: • subject-by-subject: discuss one candidate fully, then the other • point-by-point: discuss where each candidate stands on different issues

22. CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION • sorting material or ideas into major categories

23. DEFINITION • defining something ensures the reader and writer are on the same page • often the first step in a debate or disagreement • might be only a paragraph or might be an entire essay

24. CAUSE AND EFFECT • analyzing the causes that lead to a certain effect (or vice versa) • a powerful foundation for an argument • often signaled by a “why” in the title or first paragraph