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Improving Water Sanitation in Dominica

Learn about water issues in Dominica, the importance of sanitation, and how you can help conserve water quality on the island. Explore water distribution, sanitation problems, and government efforts in this informative guide.

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Improving Water Sanitation in Dominica

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  1. Water Sanitation and Waste Water disposal in Dominica • Jason N. McNeillie; MPH Student • Walden University • PUBH 6165-3: Environmental Health • Instructor: Dr. Raymond Thron • Spring Quarter, 2014

  2. Outline • Learning Objectives • A Little About Dominica • The Water Cycle • Water Distribution On Earth • Useable Freshwater • Need For Water Sanitation • Health Risks of Poor Water Quality • Mosquito Vector Borne Disease • Potable Water • Primary Sources of Water on Dominica • Water Sanitation in Dominica • Water Problems in Dominica • Human Waste Enters Rivers • Animal Feces • Trash in Rivers and Streams • Open Drainage Gutters • Open Effluent Pipes • Gutters Run Through the Streets • Sewers and Runoff Pipes Open into the Ocean • What Can You Do... • Summary • References • Further Reading

  3. Learning Objectives Link to Outline • List two interesting facts about Dominica and its people. • List and describe the three forms of participation that comprise the basic sources of water on Earth. • Briefly describe the water cycle. • List and briefly describe the distribution of water on Earth. List two reasons why freshwater is so limited for human use. • List and describe why clean water is important. • List two ways the government of Dominica is trying to improve water quality and availability. • List two local sources of Dominica’s drinking water. • List and describe at least three water sanitation and/or waste water disposal problems on Dominica. • List the ways that you can help improve and conserve water quality on the island.

  4. A Little About Dominica... Link to Outline • Size: 289.5 Square Miles (751 km2) • Location: Eastern Caribbean Ocean, between Martinique and Guadeloupe • Population: 71,684 in 2012 • Ethnicity: Afro-Caribbean, Amerindian/Carib Indian • Economy: Agricultural and Ecotourism (GCD, 2014) (GCD, 2014) Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (2014). Country Profile. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://dominica.gov.dm/about-dominica/country-profile McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2013). Bense Pool [Photograph]. Photographed September 19, 2013.

  5. The Water Cycle Link to Outline • Water exists in three forms: liquid, gas, and solid. • Changes forms constantly, via: evaporation, condensation and precipitation, freezing and melting. • Three common forms of water precipitation are rain, snow, and sleet. U.S. Geological Survey [USGS]. (2014). The Water Cycle. U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved on April 8, 2104 from http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html

  6. Water Distribution on Earth Link to Outline • The Earth’s water is globally distributed as salt water and fresh water. • Salt water can be found in the world’s oceans, seas, and some saltwater lakes and groundwater. • Lakes, rivers, swamps, and frozen water (e.g. polar ice caps and glaciers) are the source of a majority of the world’s fresh water. Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402

  7. Useable Freshwater Link to Outline • Majority of fresh water is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps (Moeller, 2011; USGS, 2014). • Only about 1% of the Earth’s fresh water is available for human use (Moeller, 2011; USGS, 2014). • Nearly 99% of useable fresh water comprises of groundwater, while 0.86% and 0.02% are found in lakes and rivers, respectively (Moeller, 2011; USGS, 2014). • We use fresh water for drinking, irrigation, transportation, industrial production, and recreation (Moeller, 2011; USGS, 2014). Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 U.S. Geological Survey [USGS]. (2014). The Water Cycle. U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved on April 8, 2104 from http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html

  8. Need for water Sanitation Link to Outline • Water is essential for life (Moeller, 2011). • Human are roughly 66% water, which helps us to function properly. In order to maintain proper functions, human adults need consume roughly 2 liters of clean water per day (Moeller, 2011). • Water helps crops, animals, and human children grow (Moeller, 2011). • Unclean water is responsible for diarrheal diseases that claim an estimated 2 million lives per year, mostly children under 5 years (WHO, 2014). • Water containing harmful chemicals, such as lead, arsenic, and PCE, can cause cancer in adults and developmental issues in children (Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014). • Human and animal waste may contain harmful chemicals, microorganisms, and parasites that can contaminate water sources (Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014). Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Water Sanitation Health: Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Development. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/en/

  9. Health Risks of Poor Water Quality Link to Outline • Water Contact Diseases • Schistosomiasis • Guinea Worm • Water-wash Diseases • Shigellosis • Trachoma • Conjuctivitis • Disease-causing Chemicals • Mosquito Borne Diseases • Waterborne Diseases: • Typhoid • Cholera • Hepatitis A & Hepatitis E • Giardiasis • Cryptosporidiosis • Norwalk Virus World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Water-related Diseases. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/en/

  10. Mosquito Vector Borne Disease Link to Outline • Endemic Dengue is carried by the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitos (CDC, 2013; GCD, N/D). • New epidemic of Chikungunya, also carried by these Aedes mosquitos (CDC, 2013; GCD, N/D; WHO, 2014). • No domestic Malaria, only foreign Malaria on the Island (CDC, 2013; GCD, N/D). • Other, more rare mosquito vector borne diseases include: Yellow Fever, West Nile Virus, and Rift Valley Fever (CDC, 2013; GCD, N/D). (CDC, 2013) The Aedes aegypti mosquito Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013a). Health Information for Travelers to Dominica. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/dominica Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (N/D). Ministry of Health: Health Information Unit. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://health.gov.dm World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Chikungunya. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs327/en/

  11. Potable Water Link to Outline • Free of disease-causing parasites and microorganism (Chan, 2013; Moeller, 2011; UNICEF, 2013). • Free of Lead (Chan, 2013; Moeller, 2011; UNICEF, 2013). • Free of human and animal fecal matter (Chan, 2013; Moeller, 2011; UNICEF, 2013). • Contains safe levels of Chlorine (as a disinfectant) and Fluoride (for dental health) (Chan, 2013; Moeller, 2011; UNICEF, 2013). McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Water Filled Glass (Photograph). Taken on April 19, 2014. Chan, M. (2013). WHO Director-General Addresses Budapest Water Summit. World Health Organization [WHO]. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/dg/speeches/2013/water_sanitation/en/ Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Funds [UNICEF]. (2013). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Water Quality. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_43106.html

  12. Primary Sources Of Water on Dominica Link to Outline • Upwards of 95% of the island has access to fresh water through DOWASCO (2014). • This water primarily comes from local sources, such as Syndicate Falls and, Freshwater Lake. Syndicate Falls Syndicate Falls (Photograph). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://ruwc.weebly.com/what-to-do-in-dominica.html Freshwater Lake, in Morne Trois Pitons National Park Freshwater Lake (Photograph). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://ruwc.weebly.com/what-to-do-in-dominica.html Dominica Water and Sewage Company Limited [DOWASCO]. (2014). Water Quality. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.dowasco.dm/index.php/water-quality

  13. Water Sanitation in Dominica Link to Outline • Water collected from local sources is treated with chlorine, and pumped to residents of Roseau. • DOWASCO is committed to improving and expanding their services, however, they do admit that water turbidity and interrupted services during the rainy season is a major concern. • In October of 2011, the West Coast Water Supply Project began. This project is focused on providing the entire west coast of Dominica with clean, treated water, and local water storage tanks. McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). DOWASCO Water Treatment Facility (Photograph). Taken on April 16, 2014. Dominica Water and Sewage Company Limited [DOWASCO]. (2014). Water Quality. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.dowasco.dm/index.php/water-quality

  14. Water Problem in Dominica Link to Outline • Human and animal waste may enter rivers and streams, potentially contaminating water sources (CDC, 2013; Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014). • Trash builds up in neighborhoods, and often ends up in local water supplies. • Open drainage gutters collect trash and water waste, and can potentially host mosquito larvae (CDC, 2013; Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014). • Effluent pipes from houses often open into the aforementioned gutters. • Gutters overflow or run openly cross roads, spreading their contents onto streets and sidewalks. • Sewers and runoff pipes open onto beaches and into the ocean. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013a). Health Information for Travelers to Dominica. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/dominica Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Water Sanitation Health: Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Development. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/en/

  15. Human Waste Enters Rivers Link to Outline • Water supplies contaminated with human waste can cause disease (Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014). • Diarrheal diseases, Dysentery, Cholera, and Hepatitis A are transmitted by human feces (Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014; CDC, 2013). • Pharmaceuticals and other drugs can enter water sources through human waste (e.g., feces and urine) (CDC, 2013; Moeller, 2011; WHO, 2014; Snyder, 2008). Public Restrooms Riverbed McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Downstream From A Public Toilet Overhanging The River (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013a). Health Information for Travelers to Dominica. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/dominica Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 Snyder, S.A. (2008). Occurrence, Treatment, and Toxicological Relevance of EDCs and Pharmaceuticals in Water. Ozone: Science & Engineering. 30(1).. p65-69. DOI:10.1080/0191951070799278. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6559718b-9d71-49bb-b871-6c2ac5e99051%40sessionmgr4004&vid=10&hid=4114 World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Water Sanitation Health: Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Development. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/en/

  16. Animal Feces Link to Outline • Animals carry numerous diseases (CDC, 2013; Moeller, 2011). • Contaminants in the water can be transferred to humans through animal meat if consumed (CDC, 2013; Moeller, 2011). McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014a). Goats Eating In The Riverbed (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Chicks in Gutter (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013). Health Information for Travelers to Dominica. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/dominica Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402

  17. Trash In Rivers and Streams Link to Outline • Dominica lacks consistent trash removal (Raymond, N/D; DNO, 2012). • Trash is burnt or may end up in rivers and streams (Raymond, N/D; DNO, 2012). • Trash may contain toxins, carcinogens, oil and automobile fluids (Moeller, 2011; Raymond, N/D; DNO, 2012). Text Text McNeillie, J. (Photographer). Trash in the River (Photograph). Taken April 8, 2014. • Dominica News Online [DNO]. (2012). Solid Waste Management Corporation Faces Challenges. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/business/solid-waste-management-corporation-faces-challenges/ • Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 • Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm

  18. Open Drainage Gutters Link to Outline • Open gutters collect trash, which may prevent water flow (Raymond, N/D; DNO, 2012; Moeller, 2011). • Pooled water can host mosquito larvae (CDC, 2013; GCD, N/D; WHO, 2014). • Easily flood during the rainy season. McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Open Gutter With Trash (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013a). Health Information for Travelers to Dominica. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/dominica • Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (N/D). Ministry of Health: Health Information Unit. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://health.gov.dm • Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 • Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm

  19. Open Effluent Pipes Link to Outline • Domestic effluent pipes transport water waste from the home to open gutters. • Effluent water waste may contain human waste (Moeller, 2011; Raymond, N/D). • May also contain environmentally harmful chemicals (Moeller, 2011; Raymond, N/D). McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Domestic Effluent Pipe Opens to Gutter (Photo). Taken April 9, 2014. Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm

  20. Gutters Run Through the Streets Link to Outline • Gutters often drain onto or run across streets (Raymond, N/D; Cairncross & Valmanis, 2006; Moeller, 2011). • Gutters can also over-flow during heavy rains (Raymond, N/D; Cairncross & Valmanis, 2006; Moeller, 2011). • Children and pets often play in the streets (Raymond, N/D; Cairncross & Valmanis, 2006; Moeller, 2011). • People walking through the streets, sometimes barefoot, can track contaminants into homes and businesses, via their shoes (Raymond, N/D; Cairncross & Valmanis, 2006; Moeller, 2011). McNeillie, J. (Photographer). Sewer in the Street (Photograph). Taken April 8, 2014. • Cairncross, S., Valdmanis, V. (2006). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (2nd Edition)-Chapter 41: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11755/pdf/ch41.pdf • Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 • Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm

  21. Sewers and Runoff Pipes Open into the Ocean Link to Outline • Sewage and runoff drains empty their contents into the ocean (Raymond, N/D; Moeller, 2011; Negri & Hoogenboom, 2011; Cairncross & Valdmanis, 2006). • Contaminants may pollute the local ecosystem (Raymond, N/D; Moeller, 2011; Negri & Hoogenboom, 2011; Cairncross & Valdmanis, 2006). • Directly exposing humans to concentrated waste during recreational beach and ocean activities (Raymond, N/D; Moeller, 2011; Negri & Hoogenboom, 2011; Cairncross & Valdmanis, 2006). • Fish and other wildlife may become contaminated and consumed by locals (Raymond, N/D; Moeller, 2011; Negri & Hoogenboom, 2011; Cairncross & Valdmanis, 2006). McNeillie, J. (Photographer). Sewer to Bay (Photograph). Taken April 8, 2014. • Cairncross, S., Valdmanis, V. (2006). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (2nd Edition)-Chapter 41: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11755/pdf/ch41.pdf • Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 • Negri, A.P., & Hoogenboom, M.O. (2011). Water Contamination Reduces the Tolerance of Coral Larvae to Thermal Stress. PLoS ONE. 6(5). p1-9. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019703. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6559718b-9d71-49bb-b871-6c2ac5e99051%40sessionmgr4004&vid=25&hid=4114 • Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm

  22. What can you do... Link to Outline • Purchase and Install Under-sink Water Filtration Units (Amazon.com, 2014; EPA, 2005) • Petition Your Local Village Council for improved quality of the water supply and waste water disposal, along with proper disposal of trash (GCD, 2014; EPA, 2012). A list of local elected officials can be found at the following link: http://electoraloffice.gov.dm/village-council-elections/6-list-of-village-councils • Boil water • Remove, cover, or dump out standing water to avoid mosquito infestation and disease. • Prevent your animals and pets from defecating in local water supplies. Undersink Water Filtration Units (Photograph). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://findmybiz.com.au/reverse-osmosis-water-filtration.html Amazon.com. (2014). Under-sink Water Filtration Systems. Retrieved on April 18, 2014 from http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_i_1_15?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=undersink+water+filter+system&sprefix=undersink+water%2Caps%2C369 Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. (2005). Water Health Series: Filtration Facts. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://water.epa.gov/drink/info/upload/2005_11_17_faq_fs_healthseries_filtration.pdf Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. (2012). Citizen Involvement in Source Water Protection. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/drinkingwater/sourcewater/protection/citizeninvolvementinsourcewaterprotection.cfm Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (2014). Electoral Office: List of Village Councils. Retrieved on April 18, 2014 from http://electoraloffice.gov.dm/village-council-elections/6-list-of-village-councils

  23. Summary Link to Outline • Clean water is the lifeblood of human health. • Most of the Earth’s water is salt water. • Clean, potable water is relatively sparse. • Water can be the host of numerous different parasites and parasite carrying organisms. • Dominica does a commendable job providing clean water to it’s residents. • Waste water and trash disposal is arguably an issue on the island. • Dominican citizens can help remedy the situation through awareness, advocacy, and waste reduction. By understanding the issue, and with outside financial assistance, local Dominicans can advocate for better waste disposal. • Ultimately, the people and government of Dominica, are the ones who can keep Dominica beautiful and healthy, preserving “The Nature Island.”

  24. References Link to Outline • Amazon.com. (2014). Under-sink Water Filtration Systems. Retrieved on April 18, 2014 from http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_i_1_15?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=undersink+water+filter+system&sprefix=undersink+water%2Caps%2C369 • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013a). Health Information for Travelers to Dominica. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/dominica • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013b). Typhoid Fever. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/typhoid_fever/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013c). Cholera – Vibrio cholera Infection. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/cholera/index.html • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013d). Parasites – Cryptosporidium (also known as “Crypto”). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/crypto/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013e). Norovirus. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/norovirus/index.html • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013f). Shigellosis. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/shigellosis/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2013g). Rift Valley Fever (RVF). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/rvf/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014a). Hepatitis A Information for the Public. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/A/index.htm • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014b). Parasites – Dracunculiasis (also known as Guinea Worm Disease). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014c). Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/conjunctivitis/index.html • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014d). Dengue. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/Dengue/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014e). Chikungunya Virus. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014f). Malaria. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2014g). West Nile Virus. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/index.html • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2009a). Hepatitis E Information for the Public. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/E/index.htm • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2009b). Water-related Hygiene: Trachoma. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/disease/trachoma.html • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2011a). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/giardia/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2011b). Yellow Fever. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/

  25. References Continued... Link to Outline • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2012). Parasites – Schistosomiasis. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/schistosomiasis/ • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2007). Mosquito-Borne Diseases. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/list_mosquitoborne.htm • Cairncross, S., Valdmanis, V. (2006). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries (2nd Edition)-Chapter 41: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11755/pdf/ch41.pdf • Chan, M. (2013). WHO Director-General Addresses Budapest Water Summit. World Health Organization [WHO]. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/dg/speeches/2013/water_sanitation/en/ • Discover Dominica Authority. (2013). Welcome to Dominica: The Nature Island. Retrieved on April 11, from http://www.dominica.dm/index.php • Dominica News Online [DNO]. (2012). Solid Waste Management Corporation Faces Challenges. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/business/solid-waste-management-corporation-faces-challenges/ • Dominica Water and Sewage Company Limited [DOWASCO]. (2014). Water Quality. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.dowasco.dm/index.php/water-quality • Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. (2012). Citizen Involvement in Source Water Protection. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/drinkingwater/sourcewater/protection/citizeninvolvementinsourcewaterprotection.cfm • Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. (2005). Water Health Series: Filtration Facts. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://water.epa.gov/drink/info/upload/2005_11_17_faq_fs_healthseries_filtration.pdf • Evans, J., & Perlman, H.(Visual Diagram). The Water Cycle. U.S. Department of the Interior: U.S. Geological Survey [USGS]. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html • Freshwater Lake (Photograph). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://ruwc.weebly.com/what-to-do-in-dominica.html • Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (2014). Country Profile. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://dominica.gov.dm/about-dominica/country-profile • Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (2014). Electoral Office: List of Village Councils. Retrieved on April 18, 2014 from http://electoraloffice.gov.dm/village-council-elections/6-list-of-village-councils • Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica [GCD]. (N/D). Ministry of Health: Health Information Unit. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://health.gov.dm • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2013). Bense Pool [Photograph]. Photographed September 19, 2013. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2013). Bense Pool [Photograph]. Photographed September 19, 2013. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Water Filled Glass (Photograph). Taken on April 19, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Downstream From A Public Toilet Overhanging The River (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). Trash in the River (Photograph). Taken April 8, 2014.

  26. References Continued Again Link to Outline • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Open Gutter With Trash (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Goats Eating In The Riverbed (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Chicks in Gutter (Photograph). Taken on April 8, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). (2014). Domestic Effluent Pipe Opens to Gutter (Photo). Taken April 9, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). Sewer in the Street (Photograph). Taken April 8, 2014. • McNeillie, J. (Photographer). Sewer to Bay (Photograph). Taken April 8, 2014. • Moeller, D.W. (2011). Environmental Health (4th Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN: 978-0674047402 • Negri, A.P., & Hoogenboom, M.O. (2011). Water Contamination Reduces the Tolerance of Coral Larvae to Thermal Stress. PLoS ONE. 6(5). p1-9. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019703. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6559718b-9d71-49bb-b871-6c2ac5e99051%40sessionmgr4004&vid=25&hid=4114 • Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm • Snyder, S.A. (2008). Occurrence, Treatment, and Toxicological Relevance of EDCs and Pharmaceuticals in Water. Ozone: Science & Engineering. 30(1).. p65-69. DOI:10.1080/0191951070799278. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6559718b-9d71-49bb-b871-6c2ac5e99051%40sessionmgr4004&vid=10&hid=4114 • Syndicate Falls (Photograph). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://ruwc.weebly.com/what-to-do-in-dominica.html • Undersink Water Filtration Units (Photograph). Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://findmybiz.com.au/reverse-osmosis-water-filtration.html • United Nations International Children’s Emergency Funds [UNICEF]. (2013). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Water Quality. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_43106.html • U.S. Geological Survey [USGS]. (2014). The Water Cycle. U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved on April 8, 2104 from http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html • World Health Organization [WHO]. (2013). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Exposure Data by Country. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.606 • World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Water Sanitation Health: Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Development. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/en/ • World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Chikungunya. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs327/en/ • World Health Organization [WHO]. (2014). Water-related Diseases. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/en/

  27. Further Reading Link to Outline • Out of Poverty, by Paul Polak is a poignant exploration of the “myths” associated with ending poverty. In this book, Polak focuses on grass-root approaches to help rural farmers rise above poverty and its associated health issues, by means of inexpensive irregation and water quality improvement. Polak also includes several other non-traditional remedies for poverty. Polak, P. (2008). Out of Poverty: What Works When Traditional Approaches Fail. San Francisco, CA: Berret-Koehler Publishers, Inc. • In Sanitation and Water Supply in Low-Income Countries, authors Barbara Evans and Duncan Mara explore the various process to purify and distribute clean water in developing countries. Evans, B., & Mara, D. (2011). Sanitation and Water Supply in Low-Income Countries. Duncan Mara, Barbara Evans & Ventus Publishing ApS. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.leka.lt/sites/default/files/dokumentai/sanitation-and-water-supply-in-low-income.pdf • The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) is an international economic organization dedicated to economic progress of developing countries and their participation in the global economy. As a result of their endevours, they have published several papers and books, including Benefits of Investing in Water Sanitation, on the need for and benefits of investing in water sanitation. Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development [OECD]. (2011). Benefits of Investing in Water Sanitation: An OECD Perspective. OECD Studies on Water. OECD Publishing. DOI: 10.1787/9789264100817-en. • Terry Raymond has written a brief but very informative essay, Wise Coastal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica, that address the issue and need for coastal conservation in Dominica. As a native Dominican, Raymond has a firm grasp on the issues on the island, and provides plausible solutions to remedy them. Raymond, T. (N/D). Wise Costal Management: Pollution Issues in Dominica. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]: Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. Retrieved on April 8, 2014 from http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers2/domp19.htm

  28. The End! Link to Outline

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