Adolescence: Opportunities and Risks

1. GE 1000 Human Growth and Social Environment Lecture 6 Developmental Stage (adolescence) 1 1

2. 1. Nature of Adolescence (6-18 years old) Adolescence, in modern industrial societies, is the transition from childhood to adulthood. It lasts from about age 11 until 19-20 Is adolescence really a time of “storm and stress”? Not really. Most adolescents successfully negotiate their path from childhood to adulthood. Too many times, stereotypes about adolescents are negative. Preparation to be an adult. 2 2

3. Early adolescence is full of opportunities for physical, cognitive, and psychological growth, but also of risks to healthy development. Risky behavior patterns, such as drinking alcohol, drug abuse, sexual and gang activity, and use of guns, tend to increase throughout the teenage years; but most young people experience no major problems.

4. 2. Physical Development in Adolescence Growth spurt occurs at age 9 for girls, 11 for boys. Girls increase in height 3.5 inches per year, boys about 4 inches. Pubic hair growth. Facial and chest hair growth in males.. Breast growth in females. Very rapid growth in height and weight Sexual maturity. 4 4

5. 2. Physical Development in Adolescence(A).Adolescent sexuality Pubertal Growth Spurt(quickly for short period) 5 5

6. (A).Adolescent sexuality Early onset of puberty can create risks for females: Depression. Eating disorders. Use of alcohol, drugs, and/or tobacco. Earlier dating and sexual involvement with males. Possible lower educational attainment. Pubertal changes have a strong effect on the adolescent’s body image, dating interest, and sexual behavior. 6 6

7. (A).Adolescent sexuality • Sexual orientation appears to be influenced by an interaction of biological and environmental factors and to be at least partly genetic • Because of lack of social acceptance, the course of homosexual identity and relationship development may disagree. • Teenage childbearing often has negative outcomes. Teenage mothers and their families tend to suffer ill health and financial hardship, and the children often suffer from ineffective parenting.

8. Physical Development in Adolescence (B) Developmental Changes in the Adolescent’s Brain Along with the rest of the body, the brain changes during adolescence. The amygdala (杏仁體), which handles processing of information about emotion, develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex(新額葉), which is involved in higher-level cognitive processes. This means that the brain region responsible for acting responsibly, putting brakes on risky behavior, is still under “construction” during adolescence. 8 8

9. (B) Developmental Changes in the Adolescent’s Brain • Adolescents process information about emotions with the amygdala(杏仁體), whereas adults use the frontal (大腦的前區)lobe. Thus, adolescents tend to make less accurate, less reasoned judgments. • Under-development of frontal cortical systems connected with motivation, impulsivity and addition may help explain adolescent’s tendency toward risk taking.

10. (B) Developmental Changes in the Adolescent’s Brain 10 10

11. 3. Cognitive Development in Adolescence (A) Jean Piaget The Formal Operational Stage 11 11

12. Adolescent cognition shows greater abstract quality in ability to: Solve problems by verbal means alone. Create make-believe or purely hypothetical situations. Engage in extended speculation (思索) and test solutions systematically. (A) Jean Piaget - The Formal Operational Stage 12 12

13. Assimilation (同化) : It is the process of taking one’s environment and new information and fitting it into pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in order to make sense of it. Accommodation (調節) : It is the process of taking one's environment and new information, and altering one's pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information. In early adolescence, assimilation (同化) dominates development of thought. In later adolescence, accommodation (調節) returns to thinking and information-processing. (A) Jean Piaget - The Formal Operational Stage 13 13

14. 3. Cognitive Development in Adolescence (B.) Consequences • Increased abstract reasoning abilities may lead the adolescents to question their parents and other authority figures far more strenuously(奮發地) • More argumentative, using abstract reasoning to poke holes in others’ explanations • Think critically, acutely sensitive to parents’ and teachers’ perceived shortcomings / weakness.

15. (B.) Consequences • Egocentrism in thinking: Self-absorption (自我專注) • Adolescent egocentrism is a state of self-absorption in which the world is viewed as focused on oneself • Makes them highly critical of authority figures, unwilling toaccept criticism, and quick to find fault with others’ behaviour • Adolescent egocentrism involves two types of social thinking: imaginary audience and personal fable (神話). • Distortion in thinking: • Imaginary audience: • adolescents perceive they are the focus of everyone else’s attention • Fictitious(虛構的) observers who pay as much attention to the adolescents’ behaviour as adolescents do themselves • E.g. everyone around is focusing on the spot on one’s chin

16. (B.) Consequences 2. Personal fables /myths :寓言 • the view that what happens to them is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else • E.g. end of romantic relationship, and risk taking such as pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and drug addiction • Invincibility attitudes are likely to be associated with reckless (不顧後果的) behavior such as: • Drug use. • Suicide. • Having unprotected sex. • Vocabulary and other aspects of language development, especially those related to abstract thought, such as social perspective-taking, improve in adolescence. Adolescents enjoy wordplay and create their own dialect.

17. Adolescence is a time of increased decision-making. Situations are examined from multiple perspectives, and consequences anticipated. A strategy for improving adolescent decision-making includes parental involvement. Cognitive changes that improve critical thinking include: Increased speed of information-processing. Wider range of knowledge in variety of domains. Increased ability to construct new knowledge. Having more strategies to apply knowledge. (B.) Consequences 17 17

18. (B.) Consequences • Cyberspace: Adolescents Online • Benefits: educational promise • Dangers: child molesters (性騷擾者), internet gambling, internet addiction, “Hikikomori”(隱蔽青年) HK studies: - in 2004, the Hong Kong Family Welfare Association did a survey on 677 F. 1 to F. 4 students and their parents, 20% of them stayed on the web more than 6 hours

19. HK studies (B.) Consequences • in the same year, study from Tung Wah Group reported that in one thousand of the parents of adolescents, 16% of them reported that their children are “addicted to the internet”

20. 4. Emotional Developmentin Adolescence Emotional changes in adolescence: Emotional highs and lows increase. Pubertal changes are associated with an increase in negative emotions. Emotional development is characterized by: Increased interest in self-portrayal (肖像). Search for an identity. Emotional swings. 20 20

21. 5. Moral Developmentin Adolescence “Heinz dilemma” • Lawrence Kohlberg’s Sequence of Moral Reasoning: • People responses to moral dilemmas reveal the stage of cognitive development • People pass through a series of stages as their sense of justice evolves • in the kind of reasoning they use to make moral judgments

22. Three-level sequence, further subdivided into six stages Level I: Preconventional morality (ages 4-10) • act under external controls. • They obey rules to avoid punishment or reap rewards, • or act out of self-interest

23. Stage 1: obedience and punishment orientation • Ignore the motives of an act and focus on its physical form • e.g. the size of a lie, or its consequences Stage 2: Instrumental purpose and exchange • Children conform to rules out of self-interest and consideration • for what others can do for them

24. Level II: Conventional morality (ages 10 to 13 or beyond) • people have internalized thestandards of authority figures • They are concerned about being “good”, pleasing others, and maintaining the social order • Many people never move beyond it, even in adulthood

25. Stage 3: maintaining mutual relations, approval of others • They evaluate an act according to the motive behind it or the person performing it, and they take circumstances into account Stage 4: social concern and conscience • Concerned with doing their duty, showing respect for higher authority, and maintaining the social order • Consider an act always wrong, regardless of motive or circumstances, if it violates a rule and harms others

26. 5. Moral Developmentin Adolescence Level III: Postconventional morality (early adolescence, or not until young adulthood, or never) people recognize conflicts between moral standards and make their own judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice 26 26

27. Stage 5: morality of contract, of individual rights, and of democratically accepted law • Think in rational terms, valuing the will of the majority and the welfare of society. • They believe it is better for society in the long run if they obey the law Stage 6: morality of universal ethical principles • People do what they as individuals think is right • regardless of legal restrictions or the opinions of others • Act in accordance with internalized standards

28. 6. Psychosocial Development in Adolescence Erik Erikson Stage 5 : Identity vs. Role Confusion 28 28

29. 6. Psychosocial Development in Adolescence (A.) Erikson • Adolescents form their identity by synthesizing (綜合) earlier identifications into “a new psychological structure, greater than the sum of its parts” • Resolve three major issues: the choice of an occupation, the adoption ofvaluesto live by, and the development of a satisfying sexual identity.

30. (A.) Erikson • the period during which teenagers seek to understand who they are • by narrowing and making choices about their personal, occupational, sexual, and political commitments • determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves

31. (A.) Erikson • when failed to do so, they may adopt socially unacceptable roles as a way of expressing what they do not want to be • have difficulty forming and maintaining long-lasting close personal relationships • their sense of self becomes “diffuse (擴散的),” failing to organize around a central, combined core identity

32. (A.) Erikson virtue/strength: fidelity / loyalty • Psychological Suspension: a period during which adolescents take time off (請假) from the upcoming responsibilities of adulthood and explore various roles and possibilities • e.g. to take semester or year off to travel, work, or find some other way to examine their priorities

33. (A.) Erikson individuals separate from our family of origin and as members of a wider society struggle with social interactions, and grapple (抓住)with moral issues tend to think in terms of ideals Successful establish a philosophy of life develop strong devotion(可變) to friends (peer groups) Unsuccessful withdrawing from responsibilities Identity confusion is gap between the security of childhood and autonomy of adulthood 33 33

34. Identity is a self-portrait (肖像) of many parts: Desired career path. Religious beliefs. Social and intimate relationships. Sexual and gender identity. Cultural or ethnic identity. Personality traits. Physical body image. Identity formation occurs gradually over time, occurring before and continuing after adolescence. (A.) Erikson 34 34

35. Identity formation: Adolescence is a time of exploration. Adolescents also show a: Need for confidence in parental support. Need for a developed sense of industry. Gain in self-reflective view of their future. (A.) Erikson 35 35

36. The search for identity (A.) Erikson • A central concern during adolescence is the search for identity, which has occupational, sexual, and values components. Erik Erikson described the psychosocial conflict of adolescence as identity versus identity confusion. The virue that should arise from this conflict is fidelity (忠貞﹐忠實).

37. 6. Psychosocial Development in Adolescence(B.)Educational and vocational issues • Self-efficacy beliefs, parental practices, cultural and peer influences, gender and quality of schooling affect adolescents’ eduactional achievement • Educational and vocational aspirations are influenced by several factors, including self-efficacy ad parental values. Gender stereotypes have less influence than in the past

38. (B.)Educational and vocational issues • High school graduates who don’t immediately go on to college can benefit from vocational training • part-time work seems to have both positive and negative effects on educational, social and occuptional development. The long-term effects tend to be best when working hours are limits

39. 6. Psychosocial Development in Adolescence( C )Relationships with family, peersand adult society • Although relationships between adolescents and their parents are not always easy, full-scale adolescent rebellion is unusual. For the majority of teens, adolescence is a fairly smooth transition. For the minority who seem more deeply troubled, it can predict a difficult adulthood.

40. ( C )Relationships with family, peersand adult society • Adolescents spend an increasing amount of time with peers, but relationships with parents continue to be influential. • Conflict with parents tends to be greatest during early adolescence. Authoritative parenting is associated with the most positive outcomes

41. ( C )Relationships with family, peersand adult society • Effects of family structure and maternal employment on adolescents’ development may depend on such factors as economic resources, the quality of the home environment, and how closely parents mother adolescents’ whereabouts(去向)

42. ( C )Relationships with family, peersand adult society • Relationships with siblings tend to become more distant during adolescence, and the balance of power between older and younger siblings becomes more equal. • The influence of peer group is strongest in early adolescence. The structure of peer group becomes more elaborate, involving groups and crowds as well as friendships.

43. ( C )Relationships with family, peersand adult society • Friendships, especially among girls, become more intimate, stable, and supportive in adolescence. • Romantic relationships meet a variety of needs and develop with age and experience.

44. 7. Controversies and Issues in Adolescence (Summary) • Concern with body image, especially among girls, may lead to eating disorders • Three common eating disorders in adolescence are obesity(肥胖症), anorexia nervosa(厭食症), and bulimia nervosa(暴食症). All can have serious long-term effects. • Adolescent substance use has lessened in recent years; still drugs use often begins as children move into middle school

45. 7. Controversies and Issues in Adolescence (Summary) • Marijuana(大麻), alcohol, and tobacco are the most popular drugs with adolescents. All involve serious risks. • The prevalence(流行)of depression increase in adolescence, especially among girls • Leading causes of death among adolescents include motor vehicle accidences, firearm use, and suicide.

46. 7. Controversies and Issues in Adolescence(A) Body image Reactions to physical changes: • In girls, in the past, more negative • Now more positive, explained and discussed more openly • More increase in self-esteem, a rise in status, becoming adults

47. 7. Controversies and Issues in Adolescence(B) Eating disorders • Anorexia Nervosa: (神經性厭食症) • is a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat • Their troubled body image leads them to deny that their behaviour and appearance • which may become skeletal (骨瘦如柴的身軀)andare out of the ordinary • Focused on food, shopping often and collect cookbooks • talk about food, or cook huge meals for others

48. (B) Eating disorders • Body images are so distorted that they see their reflections in mirrors as disgustingly (討厭地)fat • and try to lose more and more weight, eventually may starved / hungry (挨餓)to death • Karen Carpenter

49. (B) Eating disorders 2. Bulimia Nervosa: (暴食症) • Bingeing(放縱) and eating large quantities of food, followed by purging(清除)of the food through vomiting(嘔吐) or the use of laxatives(通便) • After a binge (暴食)sufferers experience powerful feelings of guilt and depression, and intentionally rid themselves of the food • Dangerous, constant vomiting and diarrhea(腹瀉) of the binge (暴食) -and-purge (清除) cycles may produce a chemical imbalance that can lead to heart failure

50. (B) Eating disorders • Exact reason not clear • Dieting • Societal standards of slenderness(苗條) • Feelings of control and success • Mature earlier who have a higher level of body fat are more susceptible (easily influenced or affected by something) as they try to bring their growing bodies back into line