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Chapter 12

Chapter 12. Gender. What is Gender?. Sex is being biologically male or female Gender is the social psychological dimension of sex Gender role – set of expectations of how a person will act, think & feel because of their sex Gender typing – how a person acquires appropriate gender behavior.

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Chapter 12

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  1. Chapter 12 Gender

  2. What is Gender? • Sex is being biologically male or female • Gender is the social psychological dimension of sex • Gender role – set of expectations of how a person will act, think & feel because of their sex • Gender typing – how a person acquires appropriate gender behavior

  3. Gender – Biological or Plastic? • Prenatal hormone theory • CAH (congenital adrenal hyperplasia) • Androgen insensitive males • Pelvic field defect • Missing penis • Castrated & raised as girls • Do not accept this identify

  4. Gender – Biological Influences • Testosterone • Sex & violence • Violent criminals have high levels • Pro-players have higher levels than ministers • Social Gregariousness • Math & Spatial Ability

  5. Gender – Social Influence & Learning Theories • Social role theory • Power & status • Social-cognitive theory of gender • Observation, imitation & reinforcement

  6. Gender– Cognitive Influence Theories • Cognitive developmental theory • Must have a masculine or feminine identity • Gender constancy • Gender schema theory • Organize the world as male/female

  7. Gender Stereotyping • Gender stereotyping is pervasive • Men – dominant, aggressive, independent, achievement-oriented, enduring • Women – nurturing, affiliative, less esteemed, more helpful in distress Williams & Best (1982) 30 countries

  8. Gender Differences - Emotional Regulation • Boys regulate their emotions more poorly than girls do. • This leads to • More behavior problems, aggression, teasing, low cooperation, overreaction to frustration

  9. Gender Differences - SocioEmotional • Boys are more physically aggressive • Equally verbally aggressive • Girls are more relationally aggressive • Boys are more active, adventurous

  10. Gender Differences - Brain • Females brains smaller, more surface • Larger corpus callosum; more bilateral use • Emotional expression areas more active; more general activity • Males • Larger area on hypothalamus related to sex drive • Larger parietal lobe area for visual-spatial

  11. Are Gender Differences Important? • Sometimes. • Nurses vs. architects & engineers • Men have more accidents • Should women be in combat? • Women often disrespected • Double standard (morality) • Women have babies; men do not

  12. Are Gender Differences Important? • Janet Shifley Hyde (feminist psychologist) • Gender differences are exaggerated • Meta analyses minimize the verbal, math, etc. • Largest differences are in motor skills, sex, physical aggression

  13. What is Androgyny? • Bem Sex-role Inventory • Androgynous • Masculine • Feminine • Undifferentiated • Gender-role transcencence

  14. Gender Socialization • Boys get earlier & more intense socialization • Male role models are less accessible to young boys • Socialization more flexible for girls

  15. War on Boys? • Told to act tough and not show feelings • Pollock 1999 • Others – “War on Boys” • Not allowed to be active, aggressive • Over-diagnosed ADHD • Do not do well in school

  16. Are gender roles important? • The “weaker sex” • Women as property • Influence of Christianity • Influence of Technology • Women in the workforce • Changing the work team dynamics • Changing the family team dynamics • Who’s minding the children?

  17. Gender in Adulthood • Women • Role overload • Role conflict • Men • Role strain • Contradictory, inconsistent demands • Poorly-defined role • Problems with health & relationships

  18. What is Gender Identity Disorderand What Causes It? • Normal sex role development and adjustment may be hampered by father absence (Rekers, 1986) • Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood (American Psychiatric Association,1980)

  19. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder • Young children try out a variety of sex-role behaviors • Four pathological patterns have been identified • Hyper masculine (male) • Violent, destructive, uncontrolled & lacking in social sensitivity • Hyper feminine (male) • Feminine movements, girls clothes, girl playmates, childbearing fantasies

  20. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder • In one NIMH study of 70 gender-disturbed boys, the boys were found to be physically normal • However, 80% of mothers and 45% of fathers had a history of mental problems/psychiatric treatment.

  21. Gender Identity Disorder & Father Absence • Findings • Fathers were absent in all cases of the most disturbed boys, and 54% of those less disturbed. • 75% of most disturbed & 37% of less disturbed had no father or father substitute present in the home • Average age of separation from the father was 3.55 years; the most common cause was divorce. • Where a father or father substitute was present, he was described as “psychologically remote” in 60% of the cases.

  22. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder • The same study reports results of treatment/intervention that appears to have been successful. • If untreated, by late adolescence or adulthood, about three-fourths of boys with a childhood history of Gender Identity Disorder report a homosexual or bisexual orientation, but without concurrent GID.

  23. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder • Recommendations include: • Better communication of research on the effects of divorce of the parents on the children • Using preventive education to teach fathers the value and importance of their active, warm, emotional involvement with their children • Further research on claims regarding the therapeutic effects of religious conversion and church support on curing transsexualism

  24. Transgender • An umbrella term coined by activists to describe individuals who are: • Heterosexual cross-dressers • Homosexual transvestites • Transsexuals • She-males

  25. Gender Bill of Rights Second International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy, Houston, Texas, 1993 “All human beings carry within themselves an ever-unfolding idea of who they are and what they are capable of achieving. The individual’s sense of self is not determined by chromosomal sex, genitalia, assigned birth sex, or initial gender role. Thus the individual’s identity and capabilities cannot be circumscribed by what society deems to be masculine or feminine behavior. It is fundamental that individuals have the right to define, and to redefine as their lives unfold, their own gender identity, without regard to chromosomal sex, genitalia, assigned birth sex, or initial gender role.”

  26. Gender Bill of Rights • Based upon the statement on the previous slide, the following rights are claimed: • Free expression of gender identity. • Right to control and change one’s body. • Competent medical & professional care. • Freedom from psychiatric diagnosis or treatment. • Right to sexual expression. • Right to form committed, loving relationships and enter into marital contracts • Right to conceive or adopt children & have custody of children & parental rights

  27. Are Transgenders Mentally Disordered? • The DSM still lists transsexualism and transvestism as paraphilias. • (Homosexuality was removed from the DSM in 1973.) • At the APA meeting in San Francisco in 2003, a case was presented that these along with sado-masochism and bestiality should be removed from the DSM since there is no longer a “baseline” for judging normal behavior. • However, it has been pointed out by opponents of this idea that sex/gender is determined in the DNA and is essentially unchangeable despite surgeries, hormone therapies and alternate lifestyles.

  28. New Hate-Crimes Legislation • Gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation have been added to the list of protected categories/behaviors. The definition of these terms is unclear, permitting a broad interpretation.

  29. What is sexuality? • Sexuality • is not a personality characteristic. • is not a level of biological drive. • is a choice of behaviors.

  30. Heterosexual Choices • 90% of people have had sexual intercourse by age 22 • National Health & Social Life Survey (1994) • 3400 18 to 59 year olds • Partners are alike in age, ethnicity, education & religion • 71% have only one sex partner per year • 1/3 have sex up to twice a week; 1/3 a few times a month; 1/3 a few times a year

  31. Heterosexual Behavior • Married people have the most frequent sex & most satisfying sex lives • Most popular activities intercourse, watching partner undress • 75% men, 85% women not unfaithful • Men think about sex more • Michael & others, 1994

  32. Sex and Relationships • “Sex is a socially significant act.” • Self-concept • Future partners • Parents • Possible children • Affiliation: The need to belong

  33. Why is sex best in an intimate relationship? • Physical and psychological intimacy influence each other. • Commitment is a safeguard. • A caring rather than a using partner. • Identity and relationship issues are important.

  34. Sexuality - Adulthood • Sexual activity increases through the 20s and declines in the 30s. • 80% of adults in committed relationships , and 88% in marriages report begin “extremely physically and emotionally satisfied.” • Only a few report persistent sexual problems

  35. Unregulated Sexual Behavior • Unregulated sexual behavior is a problem for any society. • The problem is age/stage-related, in adolescence & young adulthood • Adolescents have the highest rates of STI’s all age groups, 1 in 6 per year; • One in six adults has an STI - National Center for Health Statistics, 2004

  36. Cochran & Mays (1990) • 20 % of men • 4% of women • Indicated that they would lie to a potential sex partner about the results of a positive HIV test.

  37. Adolescent Pregnancy • U.S. adolescent pregnancy rate is higher than that of most industrialized countries • 40-45% of these end in abortion • 75% to unmarried females • 40% of all births are to unmarried mothers • Increased social acceptance • Belief that a baby will fill a void in life

  38. Teenage Mothers • Likely to be poor • High percentage are low-income, minorities • Tend to have limited education, poor school performance, etc. • Reduces likelihood of educational attainment • Reduces the chance of marriage • Increases the chances of economic disadvantage and welfare

  39. Why so much irresponsible sex? Christian apostasy/hypocrisy Lack of clear cultural standards religion, morality, social acceptability no longer reasons to say no Internal conflict /Denial of consequences ambivalent feelings; guilt 20% use no contraception Social acceptability: Many people believe it is OK Conforming to the culture

  40. Why so much irresponsible sex? Lack of communication about birth control/sex Alcohol & other drugs “Romantic fog”

  41. Why so much irresponsible sex? Pressure Media/TV – spontaneous passion should be acted upon; the 40-year-old Virgin Subculture factors – to be “normal” Peer pressure – to be acceptable Date pressure – to be loved

  42. We live in a sexually coercive society. • 12% of American girls and 5% of boys say they were forced to have intercourse • Among those who had sex voluntarily, 25% said they really did not want to do so

  43. Sexual Coercion • Estimated 13% of women have endured rape, legally defined as intercourse by force, by threat of harm, or when the victim is incapable of consent by reason of mental retardation, mental illness, or intoxication. • 1998 college survey, 44% of women had experienced sexual coercion; 19% of men had obtained sex through force

  44. Why is date rape a problem? • Because too many people think it isn’t. • Taking sex too lightly – no big deal • Pornography/Myths about women • Beliefs that women enjoy rape • Misreading friendliness • Assuming that refusal is part of the game

  45. Sexual Coercion: The Cost • Psychological reactions to rape resemble those of trauma survivors • Shock Confusion • Withdrawal Chronic fatigue • Tension Disturbed sleep • Depression/Suicidal thoughts

  46. Sexual Orientation:Not Genetically Determined • Identical twin concordance rate is about 50% • Inconsistency of preference • 18% heterosexual boys, 6% girls report engaging in at least one homosexual act • Prisoners • Bisexuality • Other conditions of changing lifestyles

  47. Homosexuals • 2.7% men, 1.3% women • No real evidence of biological basis • No clear indications of social, environmental correlates • May be an interaction of the two (nature-nurture question) • Factors in explanation • Biological plasticity • Social tolerance

  48. New Statement from APA • “There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay or lesbian orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles. . . “ • American Psychological Association

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