Gestaltist views on learning

1. Gestaltist views on learning

2. Gestalt principles of learning: • Kohler • Insight study • Chimpanzee • Banana, box, stick • Learning = special perceptual problem

3. Gestalt principles of learning: • Several stages • Cognitive disequilibrium when first encounter problem • Organism attempts to regain equilibrium and balance • Maintain motivation until find solution • Much like Hull or Guthrie • Maintaining stimuli for drive are terminated with solution • Zeignarnik effect: remember unfinished problems better than finished ones- better motivation

4. Gestalt principles of learning: • Learning =coming to see solution after pondering problem • Learning involves thinking about all elements of problem • Learner must put elements together in alternative solutions until problems is solved • When solution comes, it comes suddenly- INSIGHT • No partial solutions • Solution reached/not reached (all or none)

5. Gestalt principles of learning:Pre-solution period • Lengthy time period before solution reached • Cognitive trial and error • Individual runs through various hypotheses • Individual thinks about different solutions • When hit on one that works, then behaviorally apply

6. Gestalt principles of learning:Pre-solution period • Several stipulations • All of the behaviors required in solution must be in organism’s repertoire • Organism must have been exposed to all elements of problem/solution • Aha! Reaching solution resolves conflict, relaxes tension, makes one feel like saying “aha”

7. Four characteristics of Insight • Transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete • Performance based on solution gained by insight is smooth/error free • Solution to problem gained by insight is RETAINED for lengthy time • Principle gained by insight easily transferred to new problems

8. Transposition • Principle learned in one problem-solving situation applied to another novel problem • Kohler’s work on chimps and apes • Typical experiment • Trained animal to approach 1 of 2 shades of gray paper • After training, give choice between two new pieces of gray paper • If trained to go to lighter one; chooses new lighter one • If trained to go to darker one; chooses new darker one • Gestaltists interpreted as showing that animals learned concept of “darker” or “lighter” and not specific stimulus

9. Behaviorists explanation of transposition • Spence’s theory of discrimination • When a stimulus is associated with a Sr, a gradient of excitation develops around that stimulus • Peak excitation produced by the training stimulus • Orderly decrease in excitation as stimuli get farther an farther removed from training S+ • When stimulus that not associated with Sr: get inhibitory gradient: opposite of excitatory gradient • Thus animal is learning: • R S+ • No R S-

10. Behaviorists explain transposition • Spence assumed that excitatory/inhibitory gradients added together algebraically • Net excitatory capacity equals excitatory value + inhibitory vale • NEC = EV + IV • Obtain excitatory and inhibitory gradients • Two important characteristics • Not symmetrical • Animal respond more to novel stimulus than will to trained stimulus

11. Kohler’s Interpretation • Stimuli not judged in absolute, but relative terms • Can’t take stimuli out of context • Discriminating relative to a background • Compares the two • Learns a general concept (darker/lighter) not an absolute difference

12. Test of two theories S+ S-Situation 100 cm250cm2 original training 250 cm2 150 cm2 closer 500 cm2 250 cm2 far 1000cm2500 cm2 farthest

13. Test of two theories • Spence’s prediction: • Comes point on continuum where inhibitory gradient contributes little to overall generalization gradient • At this point: excitation greater for stimulus closer to S+ than one farther away • Predicts transposition NOT occur, but slight shift to larger stimulus • Kohler: • Should show transposition • Kohler: should always choose LARGER

14. Test of two theories: Data • Neither hypothesis supported • As distance between test and training stimuli increases, likelihood of transposition decreases, supporting Spence • BUT: Choices do not really reverse: animals tend to respond randomly to stimuli, with no preference • On generalization tests, rather than choice tests: • Spence gets predicted reversal • BUT: also get more overall responding to stimuli closer to S+

15. Test of two theories: WHY? • Intermediate size problem • Strongly supports transpositional approach • Train subjects: • S+ = 150 cm2 • S- = 100 AND 200 cm2

16. Test of two theories: WHY? • According to Kohler, animals learn to choose the intermediate size! • But: if do generalization tests, get Spence style gradient with peak shift! • Suggests that both hypotheses are correct and incorrect • Because Spence could predict both instances, Spence got more support than Kohler!

17. Productive Thinking • Max Wertheimer- • method for teaching problem solving: • Productive Thinking : 1945 and 1959 • One of first to deal with “Critical thinking • Productive thinking versus rote learning • Rote learning: • learn facts/rules without understanding them • Learning rigid, often forgotten quickly • Limited circumstances for application

18. Productive Thinking • Productive thinking • Understand underlying nature of problem • Learning comes from within individual • Not imposed by external criteria • Easily generalizable, remembered for long time • Argues learning rules leads to engaging in rule for rule’s sake: • Do it because you are supposed to, not because it is necessary

19. Productive Thinking • Argued that two traditional approaches actually inhibit learning: • Traditional method: Doctrine of associations • Emphasizes S-R learning • Drill, memorization, external reinforcement • Rather, focus on insight learning • Teaching that emphasizes logic • Inductive or deductive • Inhibit creativity and novel ideas • Too rule bound

20. Productive Thinking • Argues students must be taught flexibility • Geometry example • Suggests that children do not learn to generalize to new situations • Criticisms: • Is his approach the only approach that teaches critical thinking? • Can children use insight without having the rules/concepts/information?

21. Memory trace • Brain = physical system of field forces, acts in incoming input, gives conscious meaning • Koffka: Memory trace : • assumed current experience gives rise to memory trace

22. Memory trace • Process = activity in brain caused by environmental experience • Simple or complex, depending on experience • When process terminated, trace of its effect remains in brain • Trace will influence all similar processes that occur in future • Only occur once in “pure” form, after that is interaction • Learning = modification of behavior potential that results from experience, with each elicitation of a process can be looked on as learning experience

23. Memory trace • Nature of this influence: the trace exerts an influence on the process in the direction of making it similar to the process which originally produced the trace • Stronger the trace, stronger the influence • Stronger influence = cognitive experience more like trace than process

24. Memory trace • Example: problem solving • Last thing did was solve problem • Thus solution etched as memory trace • Next time similar problem occurs: • process will occur that communicates with trace from previous problem-solving situation • That trace will then influence the ongoing process in direction of “solution”, making problem easier to solve • With repetition, memory trace grows strong, exerts greater influence, get more quickly to answer • Also explains interference: wrong memory trace could pull away from solution

25. Individual trace vs. trace system • Individual skills = many processes and corresponding traces • Individual trace: individual memory trace related to same skill • Trace system = Numerous interrelated individual traces • After many repetitions, trace system becomes more important than individual traces which compose trace system • Wholeness quality of skill begins to dominate • Repetition helps learn the skill, but destroys individual traces that compose the skill • With rote memorization or drill, get less variance in response • Gestaltists argued that this made one less able to generalize

26. Implications of trace system • Trace systems may be well developed over years • Form concepts of the world • Kind of neurological summation of all experiences with objects in certain class • Because are very firmly established, then influence our individual experiences with these stimuli • Thus: individual perception NOT just that perception, but conglomeration of all previous perceptions • Thus, we “complete” the figure- closure, etc.

27. Implications of trace system • Memory, then follows laws of Pragnanz • we finish, complete, fill in, close • Make our memories “good figures” • Whole memories, not partial • Like a more modern day “schema”

28. Educational Applications • Unsolved problems = ambiguity or organizational imbalance • This imbalance drives finding a solution • Finding solution reduces drive • Curiosity = drive to solve problems • Underlying need to resolve ambiguity and organize our worlds • Implication: not need external reward, but are internally motivated by this need reduction

29. Popper a Gestaltist? • Popper : Scientific reasoning • discussed cognitive hunger • Need to find answers drives human behavior • Both scientific and personal knowledge grow in same way, for same reason • Problem between what is observed and what is expected • Solutions to this discrepancy conjectured • Proposed solutions refuted • If solution survives refutation, then is retained until contrary evidence is found

30. Popper a Gestaltist? • Interesting approach to education: • Present problem to class • Students propose solutions • Critically analyze solutions, refuting many • Process continues until best possible solution found • Again, question is: can you do this in absence of content? • Is finding content and refuting hypotheses a parsimonious explanation of learning?

31. Critique • Contributions: • Refuted both structuralism and simple behaviorism • Concepts of organization of physical/psychological experience • Rules of organization • Challenged rote learning models • Criticisms • Never attained mainstream acceptance • Difficult model to test • In many ways, were right in terms of organizational rules and idea of whole versus parts