Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

1. Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

2. Foundations of Harappan Society • The Indus River • Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges • Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 BCE • Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of poultry • Decline after 1900 BCE • Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro (mouth of Indus River) • 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

3. Mohenjo-Daro Ruins • Population c. 40,000 • Regional center • Layout, architecture suggests public purpose • Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage • Standardized weights evident throughout region • Specialized labor • Trade

4. Harapan Society and Culture • Evidence of social stratification • Dwelling size, decoration • Harappan Civilization: matriarchal? • Influence on later Indian culture • Goddesses of fertility • Possible east/west distinctions

5. Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization • Reasons for disappearance unclear • Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil • Earthquakes? • Flooding? • Evidence of unburied dead • Disappearance by 1500 BCE

6. The Early Aryans • Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle • Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries later • Religious and Literary works: The Vedas • Sanskrit: sacred tongue • Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali • Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda • 1,028 hymms to gods

7. The Vedic Age • Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”) • Aryans fighting Dravidians • Also Aryans fighting each other • Chiefdoms: Rajas • Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south • Development of iron metallurgy • Increasing reliance on agriculture • Tribal connections evolve into political structures

8. Varna: The Caste System • Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians • Brahmin, Priest • Kshatriya, Warrior • Vaishya, Merchant • Sudra, Commoner • Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs” • Jati subsystem of castes • Related to urbanization, increasing social and economic complexity

9. Aryan Religion • Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god • Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods • Role of Brahmins important • C. 800 BCE some movement away from sacrificial cults • Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

10. Teachings of the Upanishads • Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions • Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections until 13th century CE • Brahman: the Universal Soul • Samsara: reincarnation • Karma: accounting for incarnations • Moksha: mystical ecstacy • Relationship to system of Varna

11. The Mauryan and Gupta empires321 B.C.E.-550 C.E.

12. India Before the Mauryan Dynasty • 520 BCE Persian Emperor Darius conquers north-west India • Introduces Persian ruling pattern • 327 Alexander of Macedon destroys Persian Empire in India • Troops mutiny, departs after 2 years • Political power vacuum

13. Kingdom of Magadha • Most significant remaining kingdom after Alexander’s departure • Central Ganges plain • Economic strength • Agriculture • Trade in Ganges valley, Bay of Bengal • Dominated surrounding regions in north-eastern India

14. Chandragupta Maurya • Took advantage of power vacuum left by Alexander • Overthrew Magadha rulers • Expanded kingdom to create 1st unified Indian empire • Mauryan Dynasty

15. Chandragupta’s Government • Advisor Kautalya • Recorded in Arthashastra, manual of political statecraft • Foreign policies, economics • Domestic policies • Network of spies • Legend: Chandragupta retires to become a monk, starves himself to death

16. Ashoka Maurya • Grandson of Chandragupta • Represents high point of Mauryan Empire, r. 268-232 BCE • Expanded empire to include all of Indian subcontinent except for south • Positive rulership integrated Indian society

17. Decline of the Mauryan Empire • Economic crisis follows death of Ashoka • High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue • Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries • Regions begin to abandon Mauryan Empire • Disappears by 185 BCE

18. Regional Kingdom: Bactria • Northwestern India • Ruled by Greek-speaking descendants of Alexander’s campaigns • Intense cultural activity accompanies active trade

19. Regional Kingdom: Kush • Northern India/Central Asia • C. 1-300 CE • Maintained silk road network

20. The Gupta Dynasty • Based in Magadha • Founded by Chandra Gupta (no relation to Chandragupta Maurya), c. 320 CE • Slightly smaller than Mauryan Empire • Highly decentralized leadership

21. Gupta Decline • Frequent invasions of White Huns, 5th c. CE • Gupta Dynasty disintegrates along regional fault lines • Smaller local kingdoms dominate until Mughal Empire founded in 16th c.

22. Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin • Seasonal sea trade expands • Spring/winter winds blow from south-west, fall/winter winds blow from north-west • Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Mediterranean

23. Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin • Seasonal sea trade expands • Spring/winter winds blow from south-west, fall/winter winds blow from north-west • Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Mediterranean

24. Society: Gender Relations • Patriarchy entrenched • Child marriage common (8 year old girls married to men in 20s) • Women encouraged to remain in private sphere

25. Jainism • Vardhamana Mahavira, 540-468 BCE • Abandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life • Promotes 7th c. movement based on Upanishads • Emphasis on selfless living, concern for all beings

26. Ahimsa • Principle of extreme non-violence • Jainists sweep earth, strain water, use slow movements to avoid killing insects • Ahimsa continues to inspire modern movements (Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

27. Early Buddhism • Siddhartha Gautama, c. 563-483 BCE • Encountered age, sickness, death, then monastic life • Abandoned comfortable life to become a monk

28. The Buddha and his Followers • Begins teaching new doctrine c. 528 BCE • Followers owned only robes, food bowls • Life of wandering, begging, meditation • Establishment of monastic communities

29. Buddhist Doctrine: The Dharma • The Four Noble Truths • all life is suffering • there is an end to suffering • removing desire removes suffering • this may be done through the eight-fold path • (right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration)

30. Ashoka’s Support of Buddhism • Personal conversion to Buddhism • Disillusioned after violent war with Kalinga • Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism in court • Material support for Buddhist institutions, missionary activities

31. Changes in Buddhist thought • 3rd c. BCE – 1st c. CE • Buddha considered divine • Institution of Boddhisatvas(“saints”) • Charitable donations to monasteries regarded as pious activity

32. Spread of Mahayana Buddhism • Mahayana (“greater vehicle”), newer development • India, China, Japan, Korea, central Asia • Hinayana (“lesser vehicle,” also Theravada), earlier version • Ceylon, Burma, Thailand

33. Emergence of Popular Hinduism • Composition of epics from older oral traditions • Mahabharata • Ramayana • Emphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations