Modernization, Reform and “Defensive Developmentalism”

1. Modernization, Reform and “Defensive Developmentalism” Egypt under Mehmet Ali Ottoman Empire & the Tanzimat Persia under the Qajars

2. Mehmet Ali

3. Winds of Change in Mehmet Ali’s Egypt • After the defeat of the French forces, Mehmet Ali took power as the governor of Egypt. • Committed to far-reaching reforms: • Abolition of tax farming • Let’s invite the tax farmers to dinner and… • Land confiscated from tax farmers and religious endowments • Control of agricuture • State decides what crops peasants may grow, supplied peasants with seeds, tools, and fertilizer, purchases crops from them for sale • Egypt shifts from subsistence to cash crop farming (tobacco, sugar, indigo, and cotton) • Industrialization, especially manufacturing munitions and textiles for army • Education was expanded, including the opening of schools to girls.

4. Mehmet Ali’s Military • Transformation of the army • Adoption of European uniforms, weapons, and tactics • Uses Egyptian peasants as soldiers-- hadn’t been done in centuries--hated by peasants • Mehmet Ali’s military expansion • To Sudan to gain gold slaves, and control of west bank of Red Sea • To Arabia to expand control to east bank of Red Sea-- coffee trade (Mocha) • To Syria to gain access to ports, long-distance trade routes, and raw materials like silk and timber • Mehmet defeated in Syria in 1840 by British and Ottoman forces. • Hereditary dynasty -- his sons continued to rule Egypt.

5. British Influence • Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 • By 1881, 80% of the traffic passing through the Suez Canal was British owned

6. It All Starts With Cotton • Egyptian economy increasingly dependent on cotton • Cotton prices are high during US Civil War • Economy expands, but heavily dependent on world economy • Egyptian rulers borrow heavily from European investors to finance economic improvements • Cotton price drops after Civil War • World depression devastates Egypt in 1873 • In the early 1880s Urabi Revolt led by Colonal Ahmed Urabi • Result of bankruptcy & anti-British sentiment • Brutally repressed by British forces in 1882 • British occupation continues until 1956

7. Ottoman Empire & the Tanzimat

8. Ottoman Government & Society • Sultan is the Protector of Islam: holy sites & the annual pilgrimage. • The stability of the empire depended on the maintenance of a fine balance between the central power and regional powers. • Each community was responsible for the allocation and collection of its taxes, education and issues relating to personal status issues such as marriage, divorce and inheritance. • The Millet System recognized non-Muslim communities as integral parts of the empire. • Sometimes they were allowed autonomy, especially in matters pertaining to religion and culture.

9. Janissaries • The standing army first organized by Sultan Murad I. • Consisted mainly of Christian youths who were converted to Islam and specifically conscripted to serve in the army. • To ensure the loyalty of the elite force, they were given many privileges but were separated from civil society and forbidden to marry. • By 1820 there were 135 000 Janissaries

10. Urgency of Reform • The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 • Local rulers accumulate more power • Mehmet Ali • Nationalist movements in Greece & the Balkans • Growing European economic influence • Treaty of Balta Liman

11. Tanzimat – Reform from above • Introduction of reforms from the 1830 to modernize the empire. Led by Rashid Pasha, Minister of Foreign Affairs. • Prior to this the Janissaries were violently destroyed [“The Auspicious Incident”-1826]. They had become a law unto themselves, supported conservative leaders and opposed reform. • Reforms: the abolition of tax farming; standardization of military conscription; campaign against corruption • The establishment of a Ministry of Education • New schools followed European curricula; at first had many European teachers • Students had to master French or German before they could study medicine, engineering, or science

12. Tanzimat- continued • Belief that liberal reforms would save the Ottoman Empire • In 1876 a new Ottoman Constitution was introduced, which allowed for elections to a chamber of deputies and senate. • European pressure produces a new official proclamation, Islahat Fermani (1856) • Grants equal rights under the law to all Ottoman subjects, Muslim or not • Some millet leaders feared the loss of their autonomy, and some conservative Muslims were angered • Tanzimat reforms pressed on in land ownership, codification of laws, and reorganization of the millets

13. Qajar Dynasty

14. Reform through Concessions • Qajar dynasty is weak and relatively young • Support modernization, try to raise cash by granting concessions • Reuter Concession (1872) • “the most complete and extraordinary surrender of the entire resources of a kingdom into foreign hands…” • Tobacco Concession (1890) • D’Arcy Concession (1901)- petroleum