Theory & Practice

1. of Educating English Language Learners Theory & Practice Elizabeth Cahill, Nicole Bishop, & Francesca DeCeasar

2. Which method? • Bilingual vs. English-only instruction • Politics plays role • Influences research and funding

3. Research • Either justifies or repudiates existing research • Focuses on “which method” question • In first decade of Title VII (’68-’78), $500m spent on bilingual programs, but 0.5% was spent on research

4. AIR • AIR (American Institute for Research) study • 8,200 children across country in 38 districts • $1m spent • No difference found between two methods (bilingual vs. English-only) • no controlled environment=problem • a little less than 6 months (short)

5. Standards of Success • Saying there is no difference between methods based on research is not true • Shows that there is no major impact on learning English even when using other language

6. Role of Theory • When conducting research, most focus on “what”, not “why” (evaluation research) • Basic research: compares factors (answers “why”) • The results can be applied • Small-scale, focused

7. Baker-de Kanter Report • Both in Office of Planning and Budget • Also directed AIR study • Asked: Is Transitional Bilingual Ed. effective? Other alternatives? • Again, does not go into “why” • No features discussed • Looked at over 300 studies, all but 28 thrown out • Primarily cited one • Again, the results were not consistent • Called for an all-English approach (to test it)

8. Critiquing the Critics • Results got to the media, even though government didn’t back it. • Some saw that report was one-sided • Ann Willig used the “effect sizes technique” • 28 children in one study vs. 2,000 • In Baker report, they would both be thrown out • She saw that the latter study is more reliable • She found bilingual education was more beneficial • Government said her report was invalid

9. Rossell and Baker • Same Baker • Results were mostly inconclusive, Transitional Bilingual Education being effective 22% of time • Problems • most articles used not peer-reviewed • Focus on Canada (French ed.) • Excluded relevant research

10. Greene • Same results as Willig • Different research was examined • Bilingual Ed. More effective as material becomes more rigorous.

11. Approaches to Teaching a New Language • 19th century: grammar-transition approach • Oral language not emphasized • Audiolingual method: focus on speech habits • Repetition • What we use today • Chomsky’s theory: language is creative • We have a language acquisition device as humans

12. Other theories • Comprehensible input: message in another language makes sense, but is slightly above the ability of the listener • Connected to Chomsky • Affective filter: factors that interrupt language acquisition

13. Connections between 1st and 2nd Languages • Common underlying proficiency: proficiency in one language helps one learn another

14. BICS/CALP • Basic interpersonal & communication skills • “playground English” • Cognitive-academic language proficiency • “classroom English”

15. Origins of French Immersion • In the early 1960’s, many parents from St. Lambert, Montreal began meeting to discuss their frustrations over the linguistic and cultural segregation of their community. • Although the country was bilingual most individuals were not. • French speakers were more likely to speak English than vice versa. • The Anglophone members of the community believed it was important for their children to become fluent in French, but the public schools were doing a poor job at cultivating bilingualism.

16. In 1965 the parents pressed the Protestant school board to try a new approach; the board agreed on an experiment in French immersion. • Goals were: • To provide the participating children with functional competence in both written and spoken aspects of French • To promote and maintain normal levels of English language development • To ensure achievement in academic subjects commensurate with students academic ability and grade level • To instill in the students an understanding and appreciation of French Canadians, their language, and culture without detracting in any way from the student's identity with and appreciation for English- Canadian culture.

17. Early Total Immersion Model • 26 English-speaking kindergarteners entered a school program entirely in French. • The program designers allowed students to use English to ask questions in class until the end of first grade. • To minimize anxiety instructors avoided over correcting. • The curriculum placed an emphasis on teaching without making the children conscious of their performance. • By the end of elementary school children achieved native like levels of receptive aspects of the language, listening skills and reading skills. • Speaking and writing skills were a little less. • Academic success remained the same. • By 2001 324,000 English background students were enrolled in this program.

18. Immersion for Linguistic Minorities • No English immersion programs in Canada for French speaking students. • The approach is only appropriate for language majority children. • To substitute immersion for bilingual education is dangerous because it is not the most effective way to educate a child. • The St. Lambert curriculum was effective because it provided comprehensible second language input in a low anxiety environment.

19. Time on Task • Practice makes perfect • The more English students hear, the more they will learn. • English is best learned by using it a lot throughout the school day.

20. Ramirez Report • Released in 1991. • Compares early- exit bilingual education, immersion strategies and late-exit bilingual education. • Conducted in English with the students’ native languages used on an informal basis. • Study showed that students in bilingual classrooms were out preforming their peers in immersion classrooms. • Results: showed minor differences in achievement for students in immersions and early exit education, and students in late exit education excelled.

21. De Facto Bilingual Education • Says that children who get a good start in school before immigrating have already begun to develop both literacy skills and subject matter knowledge through their first language. • Students in bilingual education are slower to acquire English than those who receive only ESL. • Students with higher SES scored higher

22. Thomas- Collier Study • Worked in close collaboration with school district staff to evaluate programs already in place. • Found that English language learners who receive two way or developmental bilingual education in elementary school surpassed the 50th percentile in English reading by the 11th grade. • Students who received ESL pullout or immersion fell between the 11th and 32nd percentile by grade 11.

23. Case Studies in Bilingual Education • The project was designed to bridge the gap between educational research and program practices. • A new curriculum was developed and new teachers were trained. • They chose 5 schools with large concentrations of LEP students whose native language was Spanish. • The students all new limited English, lived in poverty and had chronic underachievement. • The test scores were among the lowest in California. • After 5 years of this study, the median scores of the 3,500 students were well above district norms in English reading, writing and mathematics.

24. Gradual Exit Model • From kindergarten to grade 4 students receive instruction in ESL while other subjects are taught in their native language. • Teachers are trained to resist the societal pressures of completely transitioning students; to all English instruction.

25. Curriculum Design • Students were grouped not by grade but by language proficiency in both English and Spanish. • Progress was determined by an oral examination. • Phase 1- Lasted 2 years. It began with Spanish language instruction with doses of English provided through ESL. • Phase 2- Grades 2 and 3. Spanish continues is language arts and social studies but now students receive sheltered English classes in math and science. • Phase 3- Grades 3 and 4. students receive some instruction in English language arts and social studies becomes an English subject. • Phase 4- The transition to English instruction is complete.

26. Outcomes • By the end of the Case Studies 3rd year, the funding was terminated. • By that time 60% of the students in grades 2-6 who entered the program in kindergarten were scoring at or above California norms in math. • 52% of 2nd graders, 72% of 3rdgraders, and 91% of 4th graders had achieved oral; English proficiency • All the schools that were involved scores climb well above average. • Today at least 21 schools are known to be using this program.

27. Indian Language Education • There are about 175 indigenous languages spoken in the U.S. • Fewer than one-quarter of them are being learned by children. • Many of the languages are becoming moribund, or destined to die in the near future. • Although many children are not learning the language, they do not have much exposure to standard English. • They usually learn a nonstandard dialect or American Indian English.

28. Due to their lack of exposure, many of them face the same problems as other LEP students, they are just less obvious. • One problem with Native Americans and other minorities is that they fail to develop literacy in English or their native language. • In 1990 Congress passed the Native American Languages Act, which stressed the governments responsibility to work with Native Americans to ensure the survival of their languages. • In 1994 Congress amended the Bilingual Education Act to make programs seeking to conserve Native American languages.

29. Three approaches have been introduced to help preserve endangered languages. • The first is a foreign language model, which is teaching Native American languages to students who have no exposure to them. • The second is two-way bilingual education, where English-speaking students learn a second language, while LEP students learn English. • The third is early immersion, where children have to be exposed to the endangered language early and sheltered from the dominant one.

30. Two-way bilingualism • Many Americans only speak English. • In most other countries people know at least 2 languages, usually English as one. • Two-way bilingualism is taught in English and another language throughout the day. • This is for ELLs and English proficient students. • A 2003 directory identified 271 two-way bilingual immersion programs in 24 states. • In 94% of them they used English and Spanish.

31. Two-way bilingualism involves: • Integration- Language- minority and language- majority students are integrated for at least 50% of instructional time. • Instruction- Content and literacy instruction in both languages is provided to all students. • Population- Within the program, there is a balance of language- majority and language- minority students. • Another approach is two-way partial immersion, where the languages of instruction are equally balanced from the outset.