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The Science of Behavior

Explore the fascinating study of behavior and mental processes within the field of psychology, including developmental psychology, physiological psychology, experimental psychology, personality psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, social psychology, and industrial and organizational psychology.

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The Science of Behavior

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  1. The Science of Behavior • Chapter 1 Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  2. What is Psychology? • Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes • Includes the study of both humans and animals Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  3. The Fields of Psychology • Developmental Psychology • Physiological Psychology • Experimental Psychology • Personality Psychology • Clinical and Counseling Psychology • Social Psychology • Industrial and Organizational Psychology Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  4. Developmental Psychology • Study of physical and mental growth from birth to old age • Subfields • Child psychology • Adolescent psychology • Life-span psychology • Gereontology Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  5. Physiological Psychology • Investigates the biological basis of human behavior • Neurotransmitters • Effects of drugs on the nervous system • Development of the nervous system • Gender differences in brain structure and function Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  6. Experimental Psychology • Perform experiments on basic psychological processes • Learning • Memory • Sensation and perception • Cognition • Motivation • Emotion Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  7. Personality Psychology • Study of how people differ from one another on traits such as • Anxiety • Sociability • Self-esteem • Need for achievement • Aggressiveness Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  8. Clinical and Counseling Psychology • Clinical psychologists are concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders • Counseling psychologists deal with “normal” problems, such as stress caused by career change or marital problems Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  9. Social Psychology • Study of how people influence one another • Topics include: • First impressions • Interpersonal attraction • Attitude formation • Prejudice • Behavior in a group Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  10. Industrial and Organizational Psychology • Study of psychological principles in industry and business • Examples • Selecting and training personnel • Productivity improvement • Working conditions • Impact of automation on workers Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  11. Enduring Issues in Psychology • Nature-Nurture • Is a person the product of genetics (nature) or simply the sum of their experiences (nurture)? • Stability–Change • Are behavior patterns learned in childhood permanent or do people change over time? Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  12. Enduring Issues in Psychology • Diversity-Universality • How are people similar to others and how are they unique? • Mind–Body • What is the relationship between the mind and the body? Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  13. Psychology As Science • Psychologists use the scientific method • Steps to the scientific method • Collect data • Generate a theory to explain the data • Produce a testable hypothesis • Systematically test the hypothesis Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  14. History of Psychology • Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Psychology • Defined psychology as the study of immediate experience. His goal was to find the 'atoms' of conscious experience, and from there to build a knowledge of how the atoms combine to create our experience. • His methods were to study the STRUCTURE of the mind. • Structuralism studied sensory perception by manipulating stimuli and having subjects report back their experiences by introspection (looking in, how they feel, react) Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  15. History of Psychology • William James: Functionalism • Studied how humans use perception to function in our environment • More measurable, not looking in but looking at outward behavior, focused on individual differences Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  16. History of Psychology • Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic psychology • Behavior results from forces at work within the individual, often at an unconscious level • Sex and aggression  Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  17. History of Psychology • John B. Watson: Behaviorism • Studied only observable behaviors (little Albert) • Expanded upon the work of Pavlov • B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism revisited • Expanded behaviorism • Operant conditioning (reward/punishment) Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  18. The Cognitive Revolution • The precursors to cognitive psychology: • Gestalt psychology • Study of how we perceive objects as whole patterns • Humanistic psychology • Emphasizes realization of full potential • Recognizes importance of love, self esteem, belonging, and self-actualization (Maslow) Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  19. Multiple Perspectives • There is no single right answer • Several perspectives can provide insight into behavior • Most Psychologists use an eclectic approach Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  20. Where Are The Women? • In recent years, the number of women with Ph.D.s has increased dramatically Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  21. Feminist Psychology • Study of the psychology of women • Argue that • Much research is based on all-male samples, thus does not • Reports of gender differences focus too much on extremes and ignore similarities • Psychologists only study what they consider to be important Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  22. Gender Issues • Sexual orientation • Gender to which one is sexually attracted Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  23. Race and Ethnicity Issues • Race is a subpopulation defined by identifiable characteristic, e.g., skin color or facial features • Ethnicity is a common cultural heritage, such as religion, language, or ancestry Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  24. Culture Issues • Tangible goods and values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs that are passed on from generation to generation • Psychology must take cultural differences into account, e.g., the difference between individualistic and collectivist societies Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  25. Research Methods in Psychology • Chapter 2 Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  26. Naturalistic Observation • Systematic observation in natural setting • The main drawback is observer bias Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  27. Case Studies • Detailed description and analysis of one or a few people • Prominent in psychology • Observer bias is a problem • Unable to make generalizations past person being studied Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  28. Surveys • Questionnaires or interviews, such as polls prior to an election • Can generate a lot of information for a fairly low cost • Questions must be constructed carefully so as to not elicit socially appropriate answers Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  29. Correlational Research • Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables • Often used to make predictions, such as the relation between SAT scores and school success • Cannot be used to determine cause and effect Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  30. Experimental Research • The only research method that can be used to determine cause and effect • Often called the experimental method Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  31. Components of an Experiment • Participants or subjects • Independent variable (IV) • Cause (what you are studying) • This is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter • Dependent variable (DV) • Effect (result of experiment) • This is the variable that is measured by the experimenter Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  32. Components of an Experiment • Experimental group • Receives treatment • Control group • Does not receive treatment, but is the same in every other way Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  33. Components of an Experiment • Validity • Reliability • Single blind • Double blind • Operational definition Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  34. Multi-method Research • Studies often combine several methods Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  35. The Importance of Sampling in Research • Sample • Small representative subset of a larger population • Random sample • Every subject had equal chance of being selected • Representative sample • Characteristics of participants correspond to larger population Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  36. Ethics in Research on Humans • Participants must be informed of nature of research • Informed consent should be documented • Risks and limits on confidentiality must be explained Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  37. Ethics in Research on Humans • If participation is a course requirement in an academic setting, alternative activities must be offered • Deception cannot be used about aspects of research that would affect participant's willingness to participate • Deception about the goals of research used only when absolutely necessary Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  38. Ethics in Research on Animals • Psychologists using animals must ensure “appropriate consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, and human treatment” • Animals must not be exposed to pain, stress, or privation when alternative procedures are available Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  39. Careers in Psychology • Academic and Applied Psychology • Faculty positions • Research facilities • Clinical Settings • Licensed social workers • Counseling psychologists • Clinical psychologists • Psychiatrists • Psychoanalysts Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  40. Licenses in Psychology • Psychologists - Ph.D., Psy.D. • Psychiatrists - M.D. • Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D. • Social Workers (M.S.W.) - LSW • Marriage Family Therapists - M.A. Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  41. Evolution, Heredity, and Behavior • Chapter 3 Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  42. In a Nutshell… • What is Evolution? • What are some examples of Evolution? Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  43. Mechanisms of Evolution • How does evolution work? • How can we get genetically DIFFERENT organisms that come from the SAME common ancestor? • The answer IS genetics Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  44. Descent with Modification • There needs to be some long term change of the gene frequency over time. Drought causes a decrease in food. This causes a decrease in beetle size. There are more beetles in the population that have genes for green color. Years later, there are more brown beetles than green ones. Which of these is evolution? B A B-These two generations are genetically different. Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  45. Genetic Variation Gene Flow Movement of genes from one population to another. Mutation Changes in DNA Sex Sexual reproduction causes new combinations of genes. Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  46. Mutations Causes: DNA copying error 2. Environment Mutations are RANDOM Cause DNA breakdown Imperfect repair Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  47. Genetic Drift • Suppose that some organism left behind a few more offspring than other organisms. • The ones that are left are the “lucky” ones. But their genes may be no more advantageous than anyone else’s. • Entirely random. • Doesn’t produce adaptations, only a mixing of the gene pool. Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  48. Natural Selection • Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  49. Components of Natural Selection • There is more than one representation of a trait. Green and Brown Beetles Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

  50. Components of Natural Selection • Not all individuals will be able to reproduce. • Due to environmental issues, illness, etc… • DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION Birds eat green beetles, not brown ones. What’s the end result? What’s Left? Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

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