The Middle East and North Africa

1. The Middle East and North Africa

2. Middle East critically important to the global economy and global trade Oil and the Suez Canal

3. Development in MENA is largely resource driven Political Conflicts often involve struggles over resources Critics argue that MENA needs to shift attention from resources to other forms of production, example agriculture.

4. Other Development Concerns • Women’s rights, human rights, oppression, cultural resistance to modernization • Barriers to Political Freedom • Non-democratic regimes (Petro-states) • Tribalism, Traditionalism, Religion? (Islamic law) • What is the most advanced Muslim country in the middle east • in terms of freedoms? • (Turkey) • Non-Muslim State? • (Israel)

5. Islam and Politics The Prophet Muhammad (570-632)

6. The Grand Mosque at Mecca

7. Islamic Expansion 622-750

8. The Umayyad Caliphate 660-750

9. Schisms during the Abbasid Caliphate 750-1258

10. Islam in the Modern World

11. Sunni and Shia Islam

13. Divisions within Political Islam • Four contemporary currents of political Islam • Fundamentalists (strict Islamic theocracy) • Conservatives (favor Islamic law, but reject violence and terrorism) • Authoritarian secularists (nationalists) • Democratizing secularists

14. Divisions within Sunni Islam 1. Traditionalist Sunni Islam – commitment to peace and cohabitation with non-Muslims, but Islamic (shariah) law is binding to all Muslims 2. Modernist Sunni Islam – separation of mosque and state though some forms of Shariah law may still be applied in civil society, reconcile Islam with democracy, human rights, modernization. 3. Fundamentalist Islam – strict Shariah law, unified state religion, restrictions on women, harsh punishments for crimes, creation of a world Islamic community, opposition to Western influence, opposition to other forms of Islam (especially Shia). Salafi school - most prominent fundamentalist Sunni Islamic school – salaf means “ancient ones” – i.e. Salafis adhere to a purist version of Islam

15. Main Salafi schools • Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia – most prominent Salafi school • Calls for purification of Islam which he • believed had become corrupted by ottoman • rule (much like Luther’s critique of • Catholic church) • Found support among the al-Saud tribe – a • minor tribe in Saudi Arabia. The al-Saud • family seized power after WWI and • proclaimed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in • 1932 based on Wahhabism. Mohammad Ibnal Wahhab (1703-1792)

16. 2. Deobandi school Founded in India in 1867 - today in Pakistan and Afghanistan Taliban is a deobandi salafi movement. Mullah Omar

17. 3. Muslim Brotherhood A Salafi movement founded in Egypt by Sayyid Qutb (KUH-tb) (1906-1966) in 1948 Father of Islamic Radicalism (executed by Nassar government in a show trial for conspiring against the state) Bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri were inspired by Qutb in founding al-Qaeda – which remains a predominantly Salafi-inspired and Sunni movement. Sayyid Qutb

18. Divisions within Shia Islam (three schools) Twelver Shiism – about 85% of Shiites are adherents of Twelver school. In addition to believing that Islam should be led by the blood descendants of Muhammad, they believe that when the last of the 11 blood descendants of Mohammad (the 11th Imam) was killed in 874, the 12th Imam remains hidden and will return someday and bring unity to Islam once again. Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran declared himself the Mahdi – Hidden Imam – when he seized power in 1979.

19. Main point – Islam remains divided into various schools of thought and there is no consensus on the relationship between politics and religion. • Islam and violence – jihad – struggle – what kind of struggle? • Jihad of the Heart (internal spiritual struggle between right and wrong) • Jihad of the Tongue (struggle to spread Islamic values) • Jihad of the Sword (struggle to conquer and convert) – mainstream Islam only condones violence in self-defense

20. Islam and democracy In 2002, there were only two Muslim countries categorized as democratic according to Freedom House ratings (Mali and Senegal, now add Indonesia) Authoritarian rule – Iraq under Saddam Hussein, Syria under Hafaz al-Assad and son Bashir, Egypt under Nassar, Mubarak, Lybia under Ghadafi Constitutional Monarchy – Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Morocco, Gulf Arab states Islamic Theocracy – Iran

21. Case Study: Power in Iran

22. Ancient Persian Empire (400 BC)

23. Safavid Empire 1501-1736

24. Territorial Loss under the Qajar dynasty in the 19th-20th century

25. Historical Timeline 1906 –Qajar dynasty forced to establish a constitutional monarchy, establishes first Iranian parliament (Majles), with competitive political parties 1921 – military leader, Reza Khan, seizes power, declared shah or “king”, rules as absolute monarch Reza Shah

26. 1941 – Britain and USSR invade Iran, depose Reza Shah (pro-German during WWII), substitute his son Muhammad Reza Pahlavi as the new shah, redirect power back to the Majles 1943 – Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt meet at Tehran Conference Muhammad Reza Pahlavi

27. 1951 – Dr. Muhammad Mossadeq elected prime minister. Nationalizes Ango-Iranian oil company, alarming Britain and the United States. 1953 – Mossadeq arrested and imprisoned as part of CIA coordinated Operation Ajax, Shah returns to absolute power. The Shah remains an important Western ally against Soviet expansion. Dr. Muhammad Mossadeq

28. 1960s – “White Revolution” – Shah liberalizes Iranian society, economy – women gain right to vote, economic growth and expansion under elite supervision. 1963 – Shiite cleric Ayatollah Khomeini is exiled to France after criticizing Shah regime for corruption. 1970s – corruption in Shah government leads to increased poverty and social unrest, protests, demonstrations, imprisonment of political dissidents.

29. 1979 – Iranian revolution. Ayatollah Khomeini returns from exile. Shah flees Iran. An Islamic Republic is established. US embassy stormed and hostages held captive for over a year.

30. 1980- Saddam Hussein invades Iran, taking advantage of weakness and eventually supported by the United States. War lasts 8 years, 2 million casualties, ended in stalemate

31. Iran’s Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei Ayatollah Khomeini 1989 – Ayatollah Khomeini dies, succeeded by Ali Khamenei

32. Iranian Presidents 1997 – Presidential election produces a victory for moderate reformers under Ayatollah Muhammad Khatami, reelected in 2001 despite opposition from hardliners. Muhammad Khatami

33. Iranian Presidents 2005- hardliner Mahmoud Ahmadinejad elected president, immediately creates international controversy announcing the restart of Iran’s nuclear program, calling for the destruction of Israel, encouraging Hezbollah to confront Israel in Lebanon in 2006, aiding Shiite radicals in Iraq. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

34. Iranian Nuclear Program

35. Structure of Government in Iran Direct elections in Iran Iranian President (4 year terms, 2 term limit) Selects Council of Ministers (22 cabinet ministers, approved by Majles)

36. Direct elections in Iran Assembly of Experts (86 Shiite clerics, 8 year terms) Parliament (Majles, 290 representatives, 4 year terms)

37. Indirect Rule in Iran Supreme Leader – Ayatollah Khamenei (life term, elected by Council of Experts) Appoints Head of Judiciary,Head of Armed Forces Council of Guardians (12 members consisting of 6 clerics chosen by Supreme Leader and 6 judges chosen by Majles) Approves all candidates for direct elections

38. Since the Islamic Revolution an estimated 100,000 people have been executed for crimes in violation of Iran’s Islamic Laws to include such offenses as adultery and homosexuality.