-polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones -photosynthesis vs. cellular respiration equation

1. Carbohydrates General Information -polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones -photosynthesis vs. cellular respiration equation -1% of human weight are Carbs but up to 75% plants -animals eat carbs, plants make them

2. Photosynthesis vs. Respiration

3. Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates are a large group of compounds that are generally called sugars, starches, and cellulose (all of which are sugars or polymers of sugars) • Generally sugars are a storage source of energy. • By breaking sugars down into carbon dioxide and water, living organisms can release the energy that is locked up in them to use for energy requirements. • Glucose is the carbohydrate that animals utilize mostly for their energy.

4. Classifications • A monosaccharide is one that is made up of just one sugar unit. • A disaccharide is one that is made up of two sugar units. • A polysaccharide is one that is made up of many sugar units.

5. These plants and their flowers are made up of a mixture of carbohydrates that were manufactured from carbon dioxide and water, with the energy of sunlight. The simplest of the carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, simple sugars (fruit sugar) that the plant synthesizes. Food is stored as starches, which are polysaccharides made from the simpler monosaccharides. The plant structure is held upright by fibers of cellulose, another form of a polysaccharide.

6. Monosaccharides Glucose: -Blood sugar, dextrose, our energy source -all our carbs convert to this -major constituent of disaccharides/polysaccharides -various forms (geometric) of glucose -aldohexose/polyhydroxy aldehyde

7. Glucose (blood sugar) is an aldehyde, and fructose (fruit sugar) is a ketone. Both have a molecular formula of C6H12O6

8. Structure of Glucose

9. Glucose Info • Glucose is by far the most common carbohydrate and classified as a monosaccharide, an aldose, a hexose, and is a reducing sugar. It is also known as dextrose, because it is dextrorotatory (meaning that as an optical isomer is rotates plane polarized light to the right and also an origin for the D designation. • Glucose is also called blood sugar as it circulates in the blood at a concentration of 65-110 mg/mL of blood. • Glucose is initially synthesized by chlorophyll in plants using carbon dioxide from the air and sunlight as an energy source. Glucose is further converted to starch for storage.

10. Fructose Structure

11. Fructose: • -fruit sugar • -ketohexose/polyhydroxy ketone • -converted to glucose in body

12. Fructose • Fructose information • Structure formula of fructose • Fructose, or levulose, is the form of sugar found in fruit and honey. It is a laevorotatorymonosaccharide with the same empirical formula as glucose but with a different structure. Although fructose is a hexose (6 carbon atoms), it generally exists as a 5-membered hemiketal ring (a furanose).

13. Fructose Continued… • All fruit naturally contains a certain amount of fructose (often together with glucose), and it can be extracted and concentrated to make an alternative sugar. • Fructose is often used in food products designed for people with diabetes mellitus or who have problems with hypoglycaemia, because it is metabolised more slowly (GI 32) than cane sugar (sucrose) and is sweeter, so it has a smaller effect on blood-sugar levels. However, some people can react badly to fructose so it is not an option for those who need to restrict sucrose intake.

14. Fructose Continued… • Fructose is more commonly found together with glucose and sucrose in honey and fruit juices. Fructose, along with glucose are the monosaccharides found in disaccharide, sucrose. • An older common name for fructose is levulose, after its levorotatory property of rotating plane polarized light to the left (in contrast to glucose which is dextrorotatory). • Bees gather nectar from flowers which contains sucrose. They then use an enzyme to hydrolyze or break apart the sucrose into its component parts of glucose and fructose. • High Fructose Corn Syrup

15. Disaccharides -lactose -milk sugar (galactose + glucose) -sucrose -table sugar (glucose + fructose)

16. What is lactose intolerance? Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest significant amounts of lactose, the predominant sugar of milk. This inability results from a shortage of the enzyme lactase, which is normally produced by the cells that line the small intestine. Lactase breaks down milk sugar into simpler forms that can then be absorbed into the bloodstream. When there is not enough lactase to digest the amount of lactose consumed, the results, although not usually dangerous, may be very distressing. While not all persons deficient in lactase have symptoms, those who do are considered to be lactose intolerant. Common symptoms include nausea, cramps, bloating, gas, and diarrhea, which begin about 30 minutes to 2 hours after eating or drinking foods containing lactose. The severity of symptoms varies depending on the amount of lactose each individual can tolerate. Lactose

17. Lactose Continued… • Some causes of lactose intolerance are well known. For instance, certain digestive diseases and injuries to the small intestine can reduce the amount of enzymes produced. In rare cases, children are born without the ability to produce lactase. For most people, though, lactase deficiency is a condition that develops naturally over time. After about the age of 2 years, the body begins to produce less lactase. However, many people may not experience symptoms until they are much older. • Between 30 and 50 million Americans are lactose intolerant. Certain ethnic and racial populations are more widely affected than others. As many as 75 percent of all African Americans and American Indians and 90 percent of Asian Americans are lactose intolerant. The condition is least common among persons of northern European descent.

18. Sucrose

19. Sucrose Info • Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of one molecule of glucose connected via an α(1-2) glycosidic bond to one molecule of fructose. • Production • Sucrose is a covalently bonded compound. Sucrose is generally extracted from sugar cane or sugar beet and then purified and crystallized. Other (minor) commercial sources are sorghum and sugar maples. • Refining process SKIL - Sugar Refining

20. Sucrose Continued… • Usage • Pure sucrose is the most common sweetener in the modern, industrialized ers of the cat family, will gladly accept a food sweetened with sucrose, even if they aren't hungry. Processed food and junk food often have sucrose added. • [n the Human Digestive System • Sucrose can be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach walls, which means this disaccharide can offer a fast sugar boost. • Health effects • Sucrose has several adverse health effects. The most common is tooth decay, in which bacteria in the mouth turn sucrose into acid that attacks tooth enamel. Sucrose has a high calorie content and is also believed to cause obesity. People with diabetes mellitus need to control their intake of sucrose. A large amount of sucrose will result in heightend blood sugar, and over time, can result in high blood pressure

21. Food and CaloriesHow many calories do you need? • The Easy WayIf all of those calculations seem too confusing or tedious, you can roughly estimate your daily calorie requirements using this simple formula: • For sedentary people: Weight x 14 = estimated cal/day • For moderately active people: Weight x 17 = estimated cal/day • For active people: Weight x 20 = estimated cal/day • 3500 calories = 1 lb. Fat storage

22. Artificial Sweeteners -many more times sweeter than natural sugars so less expensive for manufacturers to use -societal trend to use lower calories -have NOT proven to help in weight loss -diabetes: cannot handle sucrose, so alternative

23. Saccharine: • -Sweet 'N Low • -cancer link in lab animals • -actually found to decrease blood sugar so could make person more hungry

24. Saccharine Safety Issues • Safety, particularly as it relates to cancer risk, is on many people's mind as a result of the saccharine saga, which began in the 1970s. In 1977, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration tried to ban this sweetener as animal studies showed that it caused cancer of the bladder, uterus, ovaries, skin, and other organs. But the food industry intervened, urging Congress to keep it on the market with a warning label that (until recently) read: "Use of this product may be hazardous to your health. This product contains saccharin, which has been determined to cause cancer in laboratory animals." • In the late 1990s, the Calorie Control Council stated that the main health concern about saccharin was bladder cancer in male rats -- not people. They stated that further research has shown that male rats have a particular predisposition to bladder cancer and as a result the National Institutes of Health removed saccharin from its hit list of cancer-causing agents.

25. Aspartame:http://www.fastq.com/~dwaz/nutrswt2.html • -Nutrasweet,Equal • -contains phenylalanine • -PKU genetic disorder people cannot break this down and leads to toxic build-up • -neurological damage on fetuses

26. Sucralose • Brand name: Splenda • produced by chlorinating sucrose • Animal studies have shown • 40% shrunken thymus gland • enlarged liver/kidney • atrophy of lymph tissue in spleen/thymus • decrease in red blood cell count • aborted pregnancy • decrease in placental weights

27. Sucralose continued... • No long-term studies on humans • 11-27% of sucralose absorbed in humans • breaks down to 1,6-dichlorofructose…a chemical that has not been studied regarding human physiological effects • no clear-cut proof that it helps in weight loss

28. Stevia • Stevia is also used to aid digestion, lose weight and even stimulate the appetite. It is also reported that Stevia powder heals external skin sores while drinking Stevia tea reduces mouth sores and improve oral health. And if that wasn't enough, Stevia cooks, bakes, sprinkles, and tastes, amazingly like real sugar, maybe even better • With all this good news about Stevia, is there a down side? That depends on whom you ask. To date, the United States' FDA has not approved it as a "sweetener" although they have approved it as "dietary supplement". In contrast, Canada, South America, Japan and China use Stevia extensively as a sweetener in everything from soft drinks to candy, to desserts. The Coca-Cola company manufactures Diet Coke in Canada and Japan sweetened with Stevia and not aspartame/NutraSweet like its American Diet Coke counterpart.

29. Stevia continued... • Why won't the FDA approve Stevia as a sweetener? Citing preliminary research studies performed in 1985-1987 which apparently showed some ability of the active ingredients in Stevia to be "mutagenic", i.e. capable of turning into, Salmonella bacteria, the FDA ruled that Stevia can only be used as a "supplement" rather than a food additive. However, further studies of Stevia cast doubt on those original studies as whether the results were applicable to human consumption, and therefore flawed research. Despite the latest research findings that contradict those earlier research findings on Stevia, the FDA's original ruling still stands. An ironic ruling, as research studies had long-since established the cancer-causing properties of saccharin and the neurological and renal disease causing properties of aspartame, studies which have been apparently ignored in light of the fact that both artificial sweeteners are sanctioned by the FDA for public consumption. In addition, the ban against calcium and sodium cyclamates may soon lift making them available on the commercial market again.

30. Xylitol • What is xylitol? • Xylitol is a natural sweetener derived from natural sources. It is also produced in the human body as a by-product of a normal metabolism. Our xylitol is of the highest quality possible. It is a pharmaceutical grade, meaning it must be more that 99.95% pure, and is made from non-GMO (non-genetically modified organism) corn fibers. It does not contain any of the corn grain and it is tested to ensure that no corn allergens, mycotoxins, or corn proteins of any type are in the product. • TopHow does xylitol differ from other sweeteners? • Chemically speaking, xylitol is not actually a sugar, but a sugar alcohol. It differs from other sweeteners such as sorbitol, fructose and glucose because its molecule has five, instead of six, carbon atoms. Most bacteria and yeast in the mouth are unable to make use of xylitol. It is much sweeter than sorbitol, for instance. Assessed in terms of calories, xylitol’s sweetening power is the same as that of sucrose (table sugar), but with 40% fewer calories. Xylitol is important because it may help to reduce the risk of tooth decay, and everyone interested in healthy teeth should be familiar with its properties and effects. • TopWhere does xylitol occur in nature? • Xylitol occurs in small amounts in natural form, especially in fruit, berries, vegetables and mushrooms. For example raspberry, strawberry, yellow plum and endive contain xylitol. Xylitol is also found in human tissues. • TopIs xylitol safe for sugar-controlled diets? • Yes. Classified on labels as a carbohydrate, it has been used in foods since the 1960’s and is approved in the U.S. as a food additive in unlimited quantity for foods with special dietary purposes and is safe for use in any sugar-controlled diet. • TopWhere was xylitol discovered? • Xylitol was discovered almost simultaneously by German and French chemists in the late 19th century. In the Soviet Union it has been used for decades as a sweetener for diabetics, and in Germany in solutions for intravenous feeding. Its dental significance was researched in Finland in the early 1970’s, when scientists at Turku University showed it had significant dental benefits. • TopIs xylitol safe? • Yes it is. In 1983, JECFA, a joint expert committee of WHO and FAO, confirmed the fact, already known by scientists that it is a safe sweetener for foods. The FDA also confirmed this fact in 1986

31. Sorbitol • Sorbitol, a polyol (sugar alcohol), is a bulk sweetener found in numerous food products. In addition to providing sweetness, it is an excellent humectant and texturizing agent. Sorbitol is about 60 percent as sweet as sucrose with one-third fewer calories. It has a smooth mouthfeel with a sweet, cool and pleasant taste. It is non-cariogenic and may be useful to people with diabetes. Sorbitol has been safely used in processed foods for almost half a century. It is also used in other products, such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. • A French chemist first discovered sorbitol in the berries of the mountain ash in 1872. It occurs naturally in a wide variety of fruits and berries. Today it is commercially produced by the hydrogenation of glucose and is available in both liquid and crystalline form. • Sorbitol has been affirmed as GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is approved for use by the European Union and numerous countries around the world, including Australia, Canada and Japan. • In the United States, sorbitol is provided by a number of manufacturers, including Archer Daniels Midland, Cargill Inc., Roquette America, Inc. and SPI Polyols, Inc

32. Sorbitol Safety • Safety • Sorbitol’s safety is supported by numerous studies reported in the scientific literature. In developing the current U.S. food and drug regulation which affirms sorbitol as GRAS, the safety data were carefully evaluated by qualified scientists of the Select Committee on GRAS Substances selected by the Life Sciences Office of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB). In the opinion of the Select Committee, there was no evidence demonstrating a hazard where sorbitol was used at current levels or at levels that might be expected in the future. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s regulation for sorbitol requires the following label statement for foods whose reasonably foreseeable consumption may result in the daily ingestion of 50 grams of sorbitol: “Excess consumption may have a laxative effect.” • The Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has reviewed the safety data and concluded that sorbitol is safe. JECFA has established an acceptable daily intake (ADI) for sorbitol of “not specified,” meaning no limits are placed on its use. An ADI “not specified” is the safest category in which JECFA can place a food ingredient. JECFA’s decisions are often adopted by many small countries which do not have their own agencies to review food additive safety. • The Scientific Committee for Food of the European Union (EU) published a comprehensive assessment of sweeteners in 1985, concluding that sorbitol is acceptable for use, also without setting a limit on its use

33. Mannitol • Chemistry • Mannitol is a sugar alcohol; that is, it is derived from a sugar by reduction, with a molecular weight of 182.17 g/mol,[3] and a density of 1.52 g/mL.[4] Other sugar alcohols include xylitol and sorbitol. Mannitol and sorbitol are isomers, the only difference being the orientation of the hydroxyl group on carbon 2.[5] Aqueous solutions of mannitol are mildly acidic and sometimes such solutions are treated to lower the pH. Chemical Abstracts Registry Numbers for mannitol are 123897-58-5, 69-65-8 (D-Mannitol), 75398-80-0, 85085-15-0, and 87-78-5 (mannitol with unspecified stereochemistry). D-Mannitol (CAS# 69-65-8) has a solubility of 22g mannitol/ 100mL water (25°C), and a relative sweetness of 50 (sucrose=100).[3] It melts between 165°-169°C (7.6 torr), and boils at 295°C at 3.5 torr, indicating a greater boiling point at STP conditions.[4] • [edit] Obtaining mannitol • [edit] Industrial synthesis • Mannitol is commonly formed via the hydrogenation of fructose, which is formed from either starch or sugar. Although starch is cheaper than sucrose, the transformation of starch is much more complicated. Eventually, it yields a syrup containing about 42% fructose, 52% dextrose, and 6% maltose. Sucrose is simply hydrolyzed into an invert sugar syrup, which contains about 50% fructose. In both cases, the syrups are chromatographically purified to contain 90-95% fructose. The fructose is then hydrogenated over a nickel catalyst into mixture of isomers sorbitol and mannitol. Yield is typically 50%:50%, although slightly alkaline reaction conditions can slightly increase mannitol yields.[5]

34. Polysaccharides -glucose units linked together -Glycogen: Human storage of glucose in liver and muscle cells -Diabetes: "Type 1" cannot produce Insulin so cannot use glucose, fats used, health problems results, such as: atherosclerosis; eye problems, circulation, etc.

35. What is the Glycemic Index? • The Glycemic Index is a numerical Index that ranks carbohydrates based on their rate of glycemic response (i.e. their conversion to glucose within the human body). Glycemic Index uses a scale of 0 to 100, with higher values given to foods that cause the most rapid rise in blood sugar. Pure glucose serves as a reference point, and is given a Glycemic Index (GI) of 100. • Why is the Glycemic Index Important? • Your body performs best when your blood sugar is kept relatively constant. If your blood sugar drops too low, you become lethargic and/or experience increased hunger. And if it goes too high, your brain signals your pancreas to secrete more insulin. Insulin brings your blood sugar back down, but primarily by converting the excess sugar to stored fat. Also, the greater the rate of increase in your blood sugar, the more chance that your body will release an excess amount of insulin, and drive your blood sugar back down too low

36. Starch is a storage carbohydrate used by plants. • When plants photosynthesize the use the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen. • Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate used by animals. • Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is used in plant cell walls to maintain their structure.

37. Starch and cellulose are both polymers of glucose, but humans cannot digest cellulose. The difference in the bonding arrangement might seem minor, but enzymes must fit a molecule very precisely. Thus, enzymes that break down starch do nothing to cellulose.

38. Diabetes and Blood Sugar • Use the below link when in ppt. presentation mode to learn more about diabetes and blood sugar • Link to diabetes and blood sugar video

39. Glycogen • Glycogen is the principal storage form of glucose in animal cells. In humans and other vertebrates, most glycogen is found in the liver (10% of the liver mass), giving it a distinctive, "starchy" taste. Muscles contain a relatively low amount of glycogen (1% of the muscle mass). In addition, small amounts of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even smaller amounts in certain glial cells in the brain and white blood cells.

40. Glycogen Continued… • Function and regulation of liver glycogen • As a carbohydrate meal is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Glucose from the portal vein enters the liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this post-prandial or "fed" state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases. • After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. About 4 hours after a meal, glycogen begins to be broken down to be converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8-12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen will be the primary source of blood glucose to be used by the rest of the body for fuel.

41. Glycogen Continued… • Glucagon is another hormone produced by the pancreas and in many respects serves as a counter-signal to insulin. When the blood sugar begins to fall below normal, glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts. It stimulates glycogen breakdown into glucose even when insulin levels are abnormally high. • Glycogen in muscle and other cells • Muscle cell glycogen appears to function as an immediate reserve source of available glucose for muscle cells. Other cells that contain small amounts use it locally as well. Muscle cells lack the ability to pass glucose into the blood, so the glycogen they store internally is destined for internal use and is not shared with other cells, unlike liver cells.

42. Poly's Cont. Starch: Plant energy storage form. Alpha linkage of glucose molecules can be broken down by humans, so we eat starch foods Cellulose: Most abundant molecule in living tissue. Plant structural polysaccharide. Humans cannot break down this Beta linkage so we cannot access glucose, but good for fiber and cleaning colon. Animals (herbivores) an insects (termites) with symbiotic organism can utilize cellulose. Wood is 50% cellulose and cotton is 95% cellulose.

43. Starch is the major storage carbohydrate (polysaccharide) in higher plants, being the end product of photosynthesis. Starch is composed of a mixture of two polymers, an essentially linear polysaccharide -amylose, and a highly branched polysaccharide - amylopectin. Starch is unique among carbohydrates because it occurs naturally as discrete granules (or grains). Starch granules are relatively dense, insoluble and hydrate only slightly in cold water. • Amylose - The constituent of starch in which anhydroglucose units are linked by a-D-1,4 glucosidic bonds to form linear chains. The level of amylose and its molecular weight vary between different starch types. Amylose molecules are typically made from 200-2000 anhydroglucose units. Aqueous solutions of amylose are very unstable due to intermolecular attraction and association of neighboring amylose molecules. This leads to viscosity increase, retrogradation and, under specific conditions, precipitation of amylose particles. Amylose forms a helical complex with iodine giving a characteristic blue color.

44. Starch Stucture • . .

45. Cellulose • Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long-chain polymerpolysaccharidecarbohydrate, of beta-glucose. It forms the primary structural component of plants and is not digestible by humans. • History and Applications • Cellulose is a common material in plant cell walls and was first noted as such in 1838. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in cotton fibre; in combination with lignin and any hemicellulose, it is found in all plant material. Cellulose is the most abundant form of living terrestrial biomass (Crawford, R. L. 1981. Lignin biodegradation and transformation, John Wiley and Sons, New York.) Cellulose, especially cotton linters, is used in the manufacture of nitrocellulose, historically used in smokeless gunpowder. • Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms - see methanogen. • Cellulose is processed to make cellophane and rayon. • Cellulose is also used within the laboratory as a solid-state substrate for thin layer chromotography.

46. Cellulose Structure

47. Cellulose • Cellulose is one of many polymers found in nature. Wood, paper, and cotton all contain cellulose. Cellulose is an excellent fiber. Wood, cotton, and hemp rope are all made of fibrous cellulose. Cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer glucose. This is the same glucose which your body metabolizes in order to live, but you can't digest it in the form of cellulose. Because cellulose is built out of a sugar monomer, it is called a polysaccharide.

48. Termite Mounds