The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Options and Considerations

1. NBS-M016 Contemporary Issues in Climate Change and Energy 2010 NUCLEAR POWER 16. The Nuclear Fuel Cycle Keith Tovey (杜伟贤)M.A, PhD, CEng, MICE, CEnvН.К.Тови М.А, д-р технических наук Energy Science DirectorCRedProject HSBC Director of Low Carbon Innovation

2. The NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE • TWO OPTIONS AVAILABLE:- • ONCE-THROUGH CYCLE, • REPROCESSING CYCLE • CHOICE DEPENDS primarily on:- • REACTOR TYPE IN USE (more or less essential for MAGNOX), • AVAILABILTY OF URANIUM TO COUNTRY IN QUESTION, • DECISIONS ON THE POSSIBLE USE OF FBRs. • DECISIONS ON HOW RADIOACTIVE WASTE IS TO BE HANDLED. • Reprocessing leads to much less HIGH LEVEL radioactive waste, but more low level radioactive waste • ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS done 10 years ago show little difference between two types of cycle except that for PWRs, ONCE-THROUGH CYCLE appeared MARGINALLY more attractive.

3. The NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLEdivided into two parts:- • FRONT-END - includes MINING of Uranium Ore, EXTRACTION, CONVERSION to "Hex", ENRICHMENT, and FUEL FABRICATION. • BACK-END - includes TRANSPORTATION of SPENT FUEL, STORAGE, REPROCESSING, and DISPOSAL. NOTE: • Transportation of Fabricated Fuel elements has negligible cost as little or no screening is necessary. • Special Provisions are needed for transport of spent fuel for both cycles. • For both ONCE-THROUGH and REPROCESSING CYCLES, the FRONT-END is identical. The differences are only evident at the BACK- END.

4. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR (1) Cooling Ponds 1 T 0.9m3 Fuel Rods Reactor 1PJ Enrichment Concentrate 0.5m3 U3O8 Mining Spoil Ore 0.15m3 solid 0.9m3 HL waste ~ 70000 homes 60 x 2MW wind turbines REPROCESSING Once Through 9 kg Plutonium Storage UF6 Liquid 5m3 HL Waste 0.96 t Uranium 0.4m3 IL waste 0.7m3 LL waste 0.8m3 IL waste 1500 m3

5. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR (2) • MINING - ore > 0.05% by weight of U3O8 to be economic. • Typically at 0.5%, 500 tonnes (250 m3) must be excavated to produce 1 tonne of U3O8 ("yellow-cake") which occupies about 0.1 m3. • URANIUM leached out chemically • resulting powder contains about 80% yellow-cake. The 'tailings' contain the naturally generated daughter products. • PURIFICATION/CONVERSION - dissolve 'yellow-cake' in nitric acid and conversion to Uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) • UF4 converted into URANIUM HEXAFLOURIDE (UF6) or "HEX" if enrichment is needed.

6. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Enrichment (1) ENRICHMENT. proportion of URANIUM - 235 is artificially increased. GAS DIFFUSION - original method still used in FRANCE. • "HEX" is allowed to diffuse through a membrane separating the high and low pressure parts of a cell. • 235U diffuses faster than 238U through this membrane. • Outlet gas from lower pressure is slightly enriched in 235U (by a factor of 1.0043) and is further enriched in subsequent cells. • HUNDREDS / THOUSANDS of such cells are required in cascade depending on the required enrichment. • Pumping demands are very large as are the cooling requirements between stages.

7. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Enrichment (2) ENRICHMENT: GAS DIFFUSION. • Outlet gas from HIGH PRESSURE side is slightly depleted URANIUM and is fed back into previous cell of sequence. • AT BACK END, depleted URANIUM contains only 0.2 - 0.3% 235U, • NOT economic to use this for enrichment. • This depleted URANIUM is currently stockpiled, but could be an extremely value fuel resource should we decide to go for the FBR.

8. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Enrichment (3) ENRICHMENT. GAS CENTRIFUGE ENRICHEMENT • similar to the Gas diffusion in that it requires many stages. • "HEX" is spun in a centrifuge, and the slightly enriched URANIUM is sucked off near the axis and passed to the next stage. • ENERGY requirements for this process are only ~10% of the GAS DIFFUSION method. • All UK fuel is now enriched by this process at Capenhurst.

9. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Fuel Fabrication • FUEL FABRICATION - • MAGNOX reactors: URANIUM metal is machined into bars using normal techniques. • CARE MUST BE TAKEN not to allow water into process as this acts as a moderator and might cause the fuel element to 'go critical'. • CARE MUST ALSO BE TAKEN over its CHEMICAL TOXICITY although this is not a much a problem as PLUTONIUM • URANIUM METAL bars are about 1m in length and about 30 mm in diameter. • OXIDE Fuels for Other Reactors • Because of low thermal conductivity of oxides of uranium, fuels of this form are made as small pellets which are loaded into stainless steel cladding in the case of AGRs, and ZIRCALLOY in the case of most other reactors. • TRANSPORT of FUEL Elements • Little screening is needed as URANIUM is an alpha emitter and even a thin layer of paper is sufficient to stop such particles. • No special precaution are needed as even enriched fuel is unsuitable for bomb making

10. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Fuel Fabrication PLUTONIUM Fuel fabrication presents much greater problems. • Workers require more shielding from radiation. • Chemically toxic. • Metallurgy is complex. • Can reach criticality on its own WITHOUT a MODERATOR. • Care must be taken in manufacture and ALL subsequent storage that the fuel elements are not of size and shape which could cause a criticality. NOTE:- Transport of PLUTONIUM fuel elements • a potential hazard, as a crude atomic bomb could be made without the need for a large amount of energy cf enriched URANIUM. • DELIBERATE 'spiking' of PLUTONIUM with some fission products is considered to make the fuel elements very difficult to handle.

11. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Fuel Fabrication • 1 tonne of enriched fuel for a PWR produces ~1PJ of energy. • 1 tonne of unenriched fuel for a CANDU reactor produces about ~0.2 PJ in a single pass. • However, because of losses, about 20-25% MORE ENERGY PER TONNE of MINED URANIUM can be obtained with CANDU if the spent fuel is reprocessed.

12. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: BACKEND (1) BOTH ONCE-THROUGH and REPROCESSING CYCLES • SPENT FUEL ELEMENTS from the REACTOR • FISSION PRODUCTS mostly with SHORT HALF LIVES. heat is evolved • spent fuel elements are normally stored under water • at least in the short term. • 100 days, the radioactivity reduced to about 25% of its original value, and after 5 years the level will be down to about 1%. • Early reduction comes from the decay of radioisotopes such as IODINE - 131 and XENON - 133 -half-lives (8 days and 1.8 hours respectively). • CAESIUM - 137 decays to only 90% of its initial level even after 5 years. • accounts for less than 0.2% of initial radioactive decay, but 15% of the activity after 5 years.

13. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: BACKEND (1) BOTH ONCE-THROUGH and REPROCESSING CYCLES • SPENT FUEL ELEMENTS stored under 6m of water • also acts as BIOLOGICAL SHIELD. • Water may become radioactive from corrosion of fuel cladding causing leakage - so water is conditioned – • kept at pH of 11 - 12 (i.e. strongly alkaline in case of MAGNOX). Other reactor fuel elements do not corrode so readily. • Any radionucleides escaping into the water are removed by ION EXCHANGE. • Subsequent handling depends on whether ONCE-THROUGH or REPROCESSING CYCLE is chosen. • Spent fuel can be stored in dry caverns, • drying the elements after the initial water cooling is a problem. • Adequate air cooling must be provided, and this may make air - radioactive if fuel element cladding is defective. WYLFA power station stores MAGNOX fuel elements in this form.

14. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: No Reprocessing ADVANTAGES:- • NO REPROCESSING needed - therefore much lower discharges of low level/intermediate level liquid/gaseous waste. • FUEL CLADDING NOT STRIPPED - therefore less solid intermediate waste created. (although sometimes it is) • NO PLUTONIUM in transport so no danger of diversion. DISADVANTAGES:- • CANNOT RECOVER UNUSED URANIUM - 235, PLUTONIUM OR URANIUM - 238. Thus fuel cannot be used again. • VOLUME OF HIGH LEVEL WASTE MUCH GREATER (5 - 10 times) than with reprocessing cycle. • SUPERVISION OF HIGH LEVEL WASTE needed for much longer time as encapsulation is more difficult than for reprocessing cycle.

15. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Reprocessing Cycle (1) • ADVANTAGES:- • MUCH LESS HIGH LEVEL WASTE - therefore less problems with storage • UNUSED URANIUM - 235, PLUTONIUM AND URANIUM - 238 can be recovered and used again, or used in a FBR thereby increasing resource base 50 fold. • VITRIFICATION is easier than with spent fuel elements. Plant at Sellafield now operational although technical problems are preventing vitrification at full capcity. • DISADVANTAGES:- • Greater volumes of both Low Level and Intermediate Level Waste are created. • Historically, routine emissions from reprocessing plants have been greater than storage of ONCE-THROUGH cycle waste.

16. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Reprocessing Cycle (2) Dealing with liquid effluents • At SELLAFIELD the ION EXCHANGE plant • SIXEP (Site Ion EXchange Plant) • commissioned in early 1986, • substantially reduced the radioactive emissions in the effluent discharged to Irish Sea since that time by a factor of 500+ times • Further improvements with more advance waste treatment have now been installed. • PLUTONIUM is stockpiled or in transport if used in FBRs. (although this can be 'spiked').

17. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR: Reprocessing Cycle (3) cladding to intermediate level waste storage Fuel decanned Dissolve Fuel in Nitric Acid add tributyl phosphate (TBP) in odourless ketone (OK) High Level Waste further treatment with TBP/OK medium level waste reduced with ferrous sulphamate ** PLUTONIUM – converted for storage or fuel fabrication for MOX or FBR URANIUM – converted into UO3 and recycled The Chemistry **Pipes in this are of small diameter to prevent CRITICALITIES. Fuel stored in cooling ponds to allow further decay

18. Waste Disposal: An Introduction topic will be covered more fully by Alan Kendall later in Week LOW LEVEL WASTE. • CONTAINS MATERIALS CONTAMINATED WITH RADIOISOTOPES • either very long half lives indeed, • or VERY SMALL quantities of short lived radioisotopes. • FEW SHIELDING PRECAUTIONS ARE NECESSARY DURING TRANSPORTATION. • PHYSICAL BULK MAY BE LARGE as its volume includes items which may have been contaminated during routine operations. • Laboratory Coats, Paper Towels etc. • Such waste may be generated in HOSPITALS, LABORATORIES, NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS, and all parts of the FUEL CYCLE.

19. Waste Disposal: An Introduction OPTIONS FOR DISPOSAL OF LOW LEVEL WASTE. • BURYING LOW LEVEL WASTE SURROUNDED BY A THICK CLAY BLANKET IS A SENSIBLE OPTION. • If clay is of the SMECTITE type acts as a very effective ion exchange barrier which is plastic and deforms to any ground movement sealing any cracks. • IN BRITAIN IT IS PROPOSED TO BURY WASTE IN STEEL CONTAINERS AND PLACED IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN A DEEP TRENCH UP TO 10m DEEP WHICH WILL BE SURROUNDED BY THE CLAY. • IN FRANCE, THE CONTAINERS ARE PILED ABOVE GROUND AND THEN COVERED BY A THICK LAYER OF CLAY TO FORM A TUMULUS. • Energy Field Courses in 1999 and 2001 visited the site at ANDRA near Cherbourg. (Agence National de Déchets Radioactive)

20. Waste Disposal: An Introduction INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE. • contains HIGHER quantities of SHORT LIVED RADIOACTIVE WASTE, • or MODERATE QUANTITIES OF RADIONUCLEIDES OF MODERATE HALF LIFE • - e.g. 5 YEARS - 10000 YEARS HALF LIFE. • IN FRANCE SUCH WASTE IS CAST INTO CONCRETE MONOLITHIC BLOCKS AND BURIED AT SHALLOW DEPTH. • IN BRITAIN, it was originally proposed to bury similar blocks at the SAME SITES to those used for LOW LEVEL WASTE. • UNSATISFACTORY AS CONFUSION BETWEEN THE TWO TYPES OF WASTE WILL OCCUR. • SEPARATE FACILITIES ARE NOW PROPOSED.

21. Waste Disposal: An Introduction HIGH LEVEL WASTE. • At Sellafield, high level waste is now being encapsulated and stored on site in specially constructed vaults. • A building about the size of the UEA swimming pool house in area and about twice as high houses all the high level radioative waste from the UKs Civil Nuclear Program with space for decommissioning of all final fuel from MAGNOX. • MOST RADIONUCLEIDES IN THIS CATEGORY HAVE HALF LIVES OF UP TO 30 YEARS, and thus ACTIVITY in about 700 years will have decayed to around natural background radiation level. • PROPOSALS FOR DISPOSAL INCLUDE • burial in deep mines in SALT; • burial 1000m BELOW SEA BED and BACKFILLED with SMECTITE; • burial under ANTARCTIC ICE SHEET, • shot INTO SPACE to the sun!

22. Waste Disposal: An Introduction UK processes waste from Overseas Countries. • Should we send back exact quantities of each of: • High Level Waste • Intermediate Level Waste • Low Level Waste • Or should we: • Send back same amount of radioactivity • i.e. a larger amount of a small volume of High Level Waste • and no Intermediate and Low Level Waste?

24. FISSION REACTORS: Fuel Elements Magnox fuel rod: Natural Uranium metal bar approx 35mm diameter and 1m long in a fuel cladding made of MAGNOX.

25. FISSION REACTORS: Fuel Elements Burnable poison AGR fuel assembly: UO2 pellets loaded into fuel pins of stainless steel each ~ 1 m long in bundles of 36. Whole assembly in a graphite cylinder

26. FISSION REACTORS: Fuel Elements PWR fuel assembly: UO2 pellets loaded into fuel pins of zirconium each ~ 3 m long in bundles of ~200

27. Simplified Fuel Cycle for a PWR (1) Cooling Ponds 1 T 0.9m3 Fuel Rods Reactor 1PJ Enrichment Concentrate 0.5m3 U3O8 Mining Spoil Ore 0.15m3 solid 0.9m3 HL waste REPROCESSING Once Through 9 kg Plutonium Storage UF6 Liquid 5m3 0.96 t Uranium 0.4m3 IL waste 0.8m3 IL waste 0.8m3 IL waste