Writing in English

1. Writing in English Typical problems for second-language writers Sandra Brunsberg Language Unit, KTH sandrab@csc.kth.se

2. Why problems? • Spoken vs. written English (channel) • Informal vs. “academic” (mode) • First language vs. English (code)

3. Why problems? • Spoken vs. written English: Sp:If you look at Figure 1, you’ll see… Wr: Figure 1 shows… • Informal vs. “academic”: Inf: This turned out to be a good method. Ac: The method proved to be useful/robust/efficient.

4. Typical problems with English • Subject-verb agreement • Tense choice • Choice of modal verb • Word order • Sentence structure • Punctuation and Capitals • Spelling

5. Typical problems with English • Subject-verb agreement • Tense choice • Choice of modal verb • Word order • Sentence structure • Punctuation and Capitals • Spelling

6. Subject-verb agreement • Redundancy feature • Does not exist in Scandinavian languages • Requires knowledge of countability in nouns • Complex noun phrases compound the problem

7. Subject-verb agreement Common beginner’s error: *Doubts has been raised about the feasibility of the solution. (An asterisk * indicates an ungrammatical sentence)

8. Subject-verb agreement Should be: Doubts have been raised about the feasibility of the solution. But what about this? Doubts about the feasibility of the solutionhas?have? been raised.

9. Subject-verb agreement Should be: Doubts about the feasibility of the solution have been raised. Avoid the problem by moving the verb: Doubts have been raised about the feasibility of the solution.

10. Subject-verb agreementDetermining noun countability Data is or data are? Equipment or equipments? Aircraft or aircrafts?

11. Subject-verb agreementDetermining noun countability Data is or data are? (Both possible, but be consistent) Equipment or equipments? (equipment is correct; uncountable) Aircraft or aircrafts? (aircraft is correct,both singular and plural— aircraft is/aircraft are)

12. Compound nouns:Separate, join or hyphenate? Which is better? 1a.Three-dimensional images were used ? 1b.Three dimensional images were used? 2. DVD-player or DVD player? 3a. Signal-to-noise ratio? 3b. Signal to noise ratio?

13. Compound nouns:Separate, join or hyphenate? The better alternatives are: Three-dimensional images (3D images/ 3-D images) DVD player Signal-to-noise ratio

14. Compound nouns:Separate, join or hyphenate? Which is correct? First- and second-degree equations Engine- and component design

15. Compound nouns:Separate, join or hyphenate? The first is correct: First- and second-degree equations The second should be: Engine and component design

16. Definite and Indefinite Articles Definitions often contain the indefinite article, to introduce the term and the class to which it belongs: A web server is a computer that stores web pages.

17. Definite and Indefinite Articles In some definitions, the term has no article: Encryption is a method of encoding messages to provide privacy over a computer network.

18. Definite and Indefinite Articles In some definitions, the term has no article: Encryption is a method of encoding messages to provide privacy over a computer network.

19. Definite and Indefinite Articles (web) server is countable (one server, more servers) encryption is uncountable (used in singular only)

20. Definite and Indefinite Articles Rule 1: Countable nouns must have an article (definite or indefinite) when used in singular form: • a method of encoding • a computer • a computer network

21. Definite and Indefinite Articles Rule 2: The indefinite article (a/an) is used the first time the noun is mentioned, hence in definitions.

22. Definite and Indefinite Articles Rule 3: The definite article will be used: 1) from the second mention onwards. Compare these two sentences: On the Internet a protocol usually refers to a set of rules that define an exact format for communication between systems… …For example, the HTTP protocol defines the format for communication between web browsers and web servers.

23. Definite and Indefinite Articles 2) with post-modifying phrases, especially with of: Computer security is the protection of information assets through the use of technology, processes, and training. 3) with unique reference: The Internet is a global network of computers that connects millions of users.

24. Definite and Indefinite Articles 4) with superlatives and the words first and last: The greatest threat to Internet security is malicious software.

25. Typical problems with English • Subject-verb agreement • Tense choice • Choice of modal verb • Word order • Sentence structure • Punctuation and Capitals • Spelling

26. Tense choice:Past, present or future? Past tense refers to a completed action: *A research report has been published in 2001. *Originally, the machine has been used in only a few cases.

27. Tense choice:Past, present or future? Past tense refers to a completed action: Should be: A research report was published in 2001. Originally, the machine was used in only a few cases.

28. Tense choice:Past, present or future? Since and for require present perfect: *Since the 1990s, many western companies are investing in the former Soviet Union.

29. Tense choice:Past, present or future? Should be: Since the 1990s, many western companies haveinvested in the former Soviet Union. For the last fifteen years, many western companies havebeeninvesting in the former Soviet Union

30. Tense choice:Past, present or future? More about present perfect: During recent years, many companies have invested in... Better than: In the last years This is used as follows: In the last years of his life, Darwin withdrew to the country.

31. Tense choice:Past, present or future? Present tense has two forms (aspects): 1) Simple form (Used for processes, established fact): The valve opens, allowing the water to flow down the slope.

32. Tense choice:Past, present or future? 2) Progressive form (used for ongoing, time-limited activity) The valve is opening, and as you see the water is flowing down the slope.

33. Tense choice:simple or progressive present? Which is correct: 1, 2, both, or neither? 1.When the user calls from a moving car, the call is being handed over to a new base station. 2.New mobile systems are being developed to meet user requirements.

34. Tense choice:simple or progressive present? Sentence 2 is correct: 1.When the user calls from a moving car, the call is (being) handed over to a new base station. 2.New mobile systems are being developed to meet user requirements

35. Typical problems with English • Subject-verb agreement • Tense choice • Choice of modal verb • Word order • Sentence structure • Punctuation and Capitals • Spelling

36. Modal verbs:Shall or will? Shall: (Usually restricted to legal documents) *The experiment shall show how the logical functions can be realised.

37. Modal verbs:Shall or will? It is better to use: Will:(Expresses certainty) The experiment will show how the logical functions can be realised.

38. Modal verbs:Should or would? Should has two meanings: (1) Expresses obligation: The power should be switched off every night.

39. Modal verbs:Should or would? Should has two meanings: (2) Expresses a fair degree of probability: The work shouldbe finished by the end of the month. (N.B. This is ambiguous, and could also mean 1)!)

40. Modal verbs:Should or would? These could also be misunderstood: According to our instructions, we shouldtest the following properties:... Further tests shouldhave given a more accurate result.

41. Modal verbs:Should have or would have?Counterfactuals For self-critical commentary: If we had used an alternative method, we might have been able to explain the perplexing results of the second test.. This would haveallowed us to examine these parameters more closely.

42. Typical problems with English • Subject-verb agreement • Tense choice • Choice of modal verb • Word order • Sentence structure • Punctuation and Capitals • Spelling

43. Word order Subject and verb not reversed when sentence starts with connectors, prepositional phrases or clauses: *Thushave we determined the importance of this factor. *Thenmustthe problem of emissions be addressed.

44. Word order Subject and verb not reversed when sentence starts with connectors, prepositional phrases or clauses: *In the first sectionis the theory given. *If this proves to be economically viable, willmany applications be possible.

45. Word order Should be: Thus we have determined the importance of this factor. Then the problem of emissions mustbe addressed. In the first section the theory isgiven. If this proves to be economically viable, many applications willbe possible.

46. Word order *Jones has, in a joint project with three European universities, reported interesting results… Should be: In a joint project with three European universities,Jones has reported interesting results…

47. Typical problems with English • Subject-verb agreement • Tense choice • Choice of modal verb • Word order • Sentence structure • Punctuation and Capitals • Spelling

48. Sentence structure False parallelism: *By changing the structure and let it be based on the XY model, we can investigate....

49. Sentence structure Should be: By changing the structure and letting it be based on the XY model, we can investigate....

50. Sentence structure Wrong non-finite form: *To lift the rig by the bridle will exert less force. *To test applications is the only way to verify..... Here we expect: To test applications… we need special equipment.