Diversity and Difference in Economic Activities

1. Diversity and Difference in Economic Activities People and their things

2. How to study different economic systems and not be ethnocentric • Despite globalization, which has extended market relations to many societies, there are still differences in the ways that economic institutions are organized. • Because of these differences, anthropologists do not typically focus on markets and market behaviour, e.g. supply and demand. • Rather, they analyse how societies, produce, exchange and consume goods and services. • Production: the varied ways in which goods and services are acquired, made or produced. • Exchange: the varied ways in which goods and services and distributed from one group or individual to another group or individual. • Consumption: the culturally specific ways in which goods are used.

3. forms of exchange • Reciprocity: the social obligation to give, receive and to repay in an equal or greater amount. • Redistribution: the amassing of goods at a central storage point, for distribution at a later date. Associated with ancient city states. • Market exchange: relation is between individual buyers and sellers, money is used, demand and supply determine the distribution of goods and services.

4. fiestas in Nuyooteco: an example of reciprocity • 24 patron saints in the village; all honoured by fiestas (feasts). • Each fiesta is put on by a mayor/domo, usually husband and wife, who are responsible for feeding hundreds of guests. • Since each couple cannot afford this, they attend other fiestas, bringing gifts. They expected to be reciprocated in kind during their own fiesta. • Villagers speak of themselves as eating from one hearth, fiestas can last for three days. • Failure to reciprocate brings a loss of social prestige. • Here, the fiesta possesses economic, social, religious and political functions: the husband of a generous fiesta often goes on to become the mayor of the village. • Here we say that these economic relations are embedded in society. • Market relations tend to disembed economic relations and create a separate sphere of economic transactions that operates on its own principles of supply and demand.

5. Another example of reciprocity: the kula in the trobriand islands • Covers a wide geographic area of many islands. • The major ceremonial aspect of it consists of the circulation of two objects: • Shell-disc necklaces (soulava): traded to the north, go in a clockwise direction. • Shell armbands (mulavi): traded to the south, go in a counter-clockwise direction. • No-one is thought to ‘own’ these objects; they are constantly circulating and famous ones bring renown to the person who possesses them. • The circulation of these objects is accompanied by the exchange of utilitarian goods, e.g. some islands are too small to be agricultural producers, but may have objects like obsidian or flint. • The goal of the exchange is to try to gain renown

8. Other Features of the Kula The partners in the kula were lifelong trading partners obliged to each other for hospitality, help and assistance. Minor kula exchanges within a group of islands preceded major expeditions. Usually one overseas trading expedition per year. Separation between utilitarian exchange (gimwali) and ceremonial exchanges (kula). The kula consists of the exchange of ceremonial items: soulava (necklaces) that travel clockwise and mwali (armbands) that travel counterclockwise. These items cannot be kept permanently, at most for a year or 2. Possession of famous kula items brings that person renown and prestige. Miserliness in exchange brought a loss of social status and prestige, generosity brought renown.

9. Conclusions: features of gift exchange • It is more embedded in social relations than we come to expect with market exchange. Both the kula and the fiesta have important social, political and religious functions and aspects. • An increase in social status comes with generosity in giving away wealth, not through accumulation. Yet it is also obligatory and not without competition. • It is personal, occurring in a face-to-face context, rather than impersonal. • As we will see when reading the Bohannon article, major changes occur in societies that experience a shift to market forms of exchange and people start producing for profit rather than for reciprocity, e.g. the potlatch in the late 19th century.