Biotechnology Through the Ages

1. Biotechnology Through the Ages Revised June 2010

2. Ancient Biotechnology • Not known when biotechnology began • Few records exist besides prehistoric carvings and sketches • Most early biotechnology focused on finding food and supporting other basic human needs • Useful plants were brought in from the wild and planted near dwellings • Food preservation most likely came from unplanned events, such as fire or freezing • Domestication of plants and animals played a key part in the development of early biotechnology practices

3. Ancient Biotechnology: Domestication • Domestication is the adaptation of organisms so they can be cultured • Process of domestication most likely began 11,000 to 12,000 years ago in the Middle East • Food supplies were often seasonal, and as such were very low in winter • Domesticating plants – such as grains – involved collecting seed and growing crude crops, and understanding the seed had to properly mature before it would be good food • Plants needed proper water, light, and nutrients • Raising animals in captivity began about the same time as domesticating plants, as people found it was easier to have an animal close by than hunt • People learned animals’ needs, how they bred, and how to raise young • Cattle and sheep were the first domesticated food animals • Domestication resulted in people being able to gather and store foods, leading to farming and food preservation methods still used today

4. Ancient Biotechnology: Food • Early humans learned hard lessons about food preservation • Some foods rotted, while others could change shape and would still be edible • Food stored in a cool cave or heated by a fire did not spoil as quickly • Immersing foods in sour liquids prevented food decay • Food could be stored in leather bags or clay jars • Fermentation occurred if certain microorganisms were present in the food, creating an acid condition which slowed or prevented spoiling • Cheese was one of the first products made through biotechnology – strains of bacteria and rennet (an enzyme found in calves’ stomach lining) were added to milk • Today, most rennet is genetically engineered, and some cheeses don’t even use it! • Certain yeasts are fungi used to make bread rise by producing a gas in the dough • Vinegar was formed from fermented juices and extracts from fruit and grains

5. Classic Biotechnology • Made widespread use of methods from ancient biotechnology, especially fermentation, but adapted them to industrial production • Focuses on short-term food production to meet the demands of an increasing population • Classic fermentation advancements occurred in the 1800 and 1900s • Yeast enzymes chemically changed compounds into alcohol, which can be converted into acetic acid, or vinegar, which can be used in pickling • The use of fermenters, specially designed chambers, allowed better control of the process, so new products such as glycerol, acetone, and citric acid resulted • Yeasts helped lead to the modern baking industry • Fermentation also led to the development of antibiotics, drugs which could combat bacterial infections • Limitations in the use of antibiotics keep disease-causing organisms from developing an immunity to the drug • Antibiotics are used in both human and animal medicine

6. Modern Biotechnology • Often referred to as genetic engineering, modern biotechnology involves the investigation of genes based on research from the mid-1800s • Genetics • Genetics is the study of heredity, or how traits are passed from parents to offspring • Differences in heredity are known as variability • Genes are the basic building blocks of genetics – they carry the genetic code • Recombinant DNA Technology • Use of biotechnology to produce new life forms by moving genetic material from one organism into another • Genetically modified bacteria, biodiesel, human insulin, and some new food varieties came about because of this challenging and controversial process

7. You Might have Heard of… • Zacharias Janssen: Dutch eyeglass maker who discovered the principle of the microscope in 1590 • Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: Developed the single-lens microscope in the 1670s, which was used to observe tiny organisms • Gregor Mendel: Austrian botanist and monk who formulated the basic laws of heredity in the mid-1800s after breeding thousands of peas and discovering some traits were dominant and others recessive • Johan Friedrich Miescher: Swiss biologist who isolated the nuclei of white blood cells in 1869, leading to the identification of nucleic acid • Walter Sutton: Determined chromosomes carried units of heredity • Wilhelm Johannsen: Dutch biologist who created the term “gene” • Thomas Hunt Morgan: Contributed to the knowledge of X and Y chromosomes and later won the Nobel Peace Prize for his research • Ernst Ruska: German electrical engineer who built the first electron microscope in 1932

8. You Might have Heard of… • Alexander Fleming: Discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic drug used in treating human disease, in 1928 • Rosalind Franklin: Set up an x-ray diffraction lab which took photographs of DNA and showed it could have a double helix structure • James Watson and Francis Crick: Collaborative researchers who produced the first model of DNA structure in 1953 • Norman Borlaug: Helped to develop high-producing wheat varieties and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 for his work • Mary Clare King: Determined that 99 percent of human DNA is identical to that of a chimpanzee • Ian Wilmut: Cloned Dolly the sheep in 1997

9. Biotechnology Terms to Note • Research: Use of systematic methods to answer questions • Basic: Require generating new information to gain understanding • Applied: Involves use of knowledge already acquired • Field Plot: Small area of land used to test questions or hypothesis to simulate results on a larger scale • Development: Creation of new products or methods based on research findings • Prototype: A pattern for the production of similar products