Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative Research

Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative Research Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi An-Najah National University Faculty of Nursing Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Quantitative Research • Typically move in an orderly and systematic fashion from the definition of a problem and the selection of concepts on which to focus , through the design of the study and collection of information, to the solution of the problem

Quantitative Research • Quantitative research use mechamisms designed to control the study • Control involves imposing (dra fördel av) condition on the research situation so that biasis are minimized and precision and validity are maximized

Quantitative Research • Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is rooted in objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses • Empirical evidence consists of observations, gathered through sight, hearing, taste, touch or smell • Observations of the presence or abscence of skin inflammation, the heart rate of a patient or the weight of a newborn infant are all examples of empirical observations

Quantitative Research • Using formal instruments to collect needed information- numeric information that analyzed with statistical procedure • Generalizability of the research:the degree to which research findings can be generalized to individuals other than those who participated in the study

The Faces and Places of Research Studies with humans involve two sets of people: Those who do the research and those who provide the information In a quantitative study, the people who are being studied are referred to as subjects or study participants Subjects who provide information to researchers by answering questions directly. E.g by filling out a questionnaire- may be called respondents Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

The Faces and Places of Research Studies are often undertaken by several people rather by a single researcher Collaborative research involving a team of nurses with both clinical and methodologic expertise (or involving different members of a health care team is increasingly common in addressing problems of clinical relevance Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

The Faces and Places of Research When financial assistance is obtained to pay for research costs, the organization providing the money is the funder or sponsor Reviewers are sometimes called on to critique various aspects of a study and offer feedback If these people are at a similar level of experience as the researchers, they may be called peer reviewers Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Research Setting Research can be conducted in a wide variety of locales, in health care facilities, in people´s homes, in classrooms Based on the nature of the research question and the type of information needed to address it Multisites studies- offer a larger or more diverse sample of study participants as public and private sectors, urban and rural location Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Settings Settings are the more specific places where data collection occurs In some cases the setting and sites, as when the selected site is a large hospital and information is collected exclusively within that setting The nature of setting can influence the way people behave or feel and how they respond to questions, the selection of an appropriate setting is important Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Variables are something that varies Weight, anxiety level, income and body temperature are all variables To quantitative research nearly all aspects of human beings and their environment are variables Quantitative research seek to understand how or why things vary and to learn how differences in one variable are related to differences in another Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Variables E.g. Lung cancer research is concerned with the variable of lung cancer It is variable because not every´body has this disease Researchers have studied what variables might be linked to lung cancer and have discovered cigarette smoking is related Smoking is a variable because not every one smokes A variable is any quality of a person, group or situation that varies or takes on different values Variables are the central building blocks of quantitaive studies, there are different types of variables Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Continous, Discrete and Categorial Variables Sotimes variables take on a wide range of values A person’s age can take on values from zero to more than 100 and the values are not restricted to whole numbers Such continous variables have values that can be represented on a continuum In theory, a continous variable can assume an infinite number of values between two points For example, consider the continous variable weight:between 1 and 2 pounds, the number of values is limitless:1.oo5,1.7,1.33333 and so on Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Discrete Variable Is one that has a finite number of values between any two points variables representing discrete quantities if people were asked how many children they had, they might answer 0,1,2,3 or more The value for number of children is discrete because the such as 1.5 is not a meaningful value Between the values 1 and 3 the only possible value is 2 Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Categorial variables The variable gender for example has only two values (male & female) Other variables take on a small range of values that do not inherently represent a quantity Variables that take on only a handful of discrete non quantitative values are categorial variables Another example is blood type (A,B,AB,O) When categorial variables take on only two values they are referred to as dichotomous variables Examples of dichotomous variables are pregnant /not pregnant, HIV positive/HIV negative, alive/dead Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Active Versus Attribute Variables Variables are often characteristics of research subjects such as their age, health beliefs, or weight Variables such as these are attribute variables. in many research situations the investigator creates a variable For example, if a researcher is interested in testing the effectiveness of patient controlled analgesia as opposed to intramuscular analgesia in relieving pain after surgery, some patients would be given patient-controlled analgesia and others would receive intramuscular analgesia In the context of this study, method of pain management is a variable because different patients are given different analgesic methods, the researcher cerates as active variables Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Active Versus Attribute Variables An active variable in one study could be an attribute variable in another For example a researcher might create an active salt intake variable by exposing two groups of people to different amounts of salt in their diets Another researcher could examine the salt intake (attributes) of a sample by asking about their consumption of salt Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Dependent Versus Independent variables Does a nursing intervention cause more rapid recovery? Does smoking cause lung cancer? The presumed cause is the independent variable The presumed effect is the dependent variable Some researchers use the term criterion variable rather than dependent variable Others use the term outcome variable-the variable capturing the outcome of interest Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Dependent versus independent variables Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to depend on variability in the independent variable For example, researchers investigate the extent to which lung cancer ( the dependent variable) depends on smoking (the independent variable) Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Dependent Versus Independent Variables Investigator may be concerned with the extent to which patients´perception of pain (the dependent variable) depends on different nursing action (the independent variable) The terms independent variable and dependent variable are used to indicate direction of influence rather than causal link Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Dependent versus independent variables If we are interested in studying factórs that influence peopl´s weight, we might consider for example their height, physical activity, and diet as independent variable Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Hetrogenity When an attribute is extremely varied in the group under investigation, the group is said to be hetrogenous Variable like gender would have two attributes: male and female If the amount of variability is limited, the group is described as relatively homogeneous Example: for variable height, a group of 2-year-old children is likely to be more homogeneous than a group of 18-year old adolescents The degree of variability or hetrogeneity of a group of subjects has implications for study design Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Data Research data are the pieces of information obtained in the course of the investigation in quantitative studies, researchers identify the variables of interest, develop operational definitions of those variables and then collect relevant data from subjects The actual values of the study variables constitute the data for the project Quantitative data that is information in numeric form Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Data Example: suppose we were conducting a quantitative study in which a key variable was depression; we need to measure how depressed study participants were We might ask” thinking about the past week, how depressed would you say you have been on a scale from 0-10, where 0 means ”not at all” and 10 means ” the most possible” Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Relationship Researcher are rarely interested in a single isolated concept or phenomenon except in descriptive studies As an example of decriptive study, a researcher might do research to determine the percaentage of patients receiving intravenous therapy who experience IV infiltration versus no infiltration A relation is a bond or a connection between phenomena Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Relationship Quantitative study adress one or more of the following questions about relationship:does a relationship between variables exist? Is cigarett smoking related to lung cancer? What is the direction of the relationship between variables E.g. Are people who smoke more likely or less likely to get lung cancer than those who do not ? How strong is the relationship betwen variables (how powerful is the relationship between smoking and lung cancer? how probable is it that smokers will be lung cancer victims? Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Relationship What is the nature of the relationship between variables ? (does smoking cause lung cancer?) One type of relationship is referred to as a cause-effect (or causal) relationship Functional relationship (association relationship) relationship between preterm neonate´s behavioral competence on the one hand and the infant´s gender and race on the other Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Correlation • In statistics, a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables. • It is used to predict the value of one variable given the value of the other. • For example, a correlation might relate distance from urban location to gasoline consumption. Expressed on a scale from -1.0 to +1.0, the strongest correlations are at both extremes and provide the best predictions.

Key Challenges of conducting research Researchers face numerous challenges in conducting research, including the following: Conceptual challenges(How should key concepts be defined? What are the theoretical underpinnings of the study?) Financial challenges (How will the study be paid for? Will available resources be adequate?) Administrative challenges(Is there sufficient time to complete the study? Can the flow of tasks be adequately managed?) Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Reliability & Validity Researchers want their findings to reflect the truth Research cannot contribute evidence to guide clinical practice if the findings are inaccurate, biased, fail adequately to represent the experiences of the target group or based on a misinterpretation of the data Quantitative researchers use several criteria to assess the quality of a study, and two the most important are reliability and validity Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Reliability & Validity Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency (the property of holding together and retaining its shape) of information The term is most often associated with the methods used to measure research variables Ex. if a thermometer measured bob´s temperature as 98.1ºF one minute and as 102.5 ºF the next minute, the reliability of the thermometer would be highly suspect Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Reliability & Validity • Statistical reliability refers to the probability that the same results would be obtained with a completely new sample of subjects that is the results are an accurate reflection of a wider group than just the particular people who participated in the study

Reliability & Validity Validity is a more complex concept that broadly concerns the soundness of the study´s evidence- that is, whether the finding are cogent (powerfully persuasive), convincing and well grounded Validity question is whether there is evidence to support the assertion that the methods are really measuring the abstract concepts that they purport to measure The importance of having solid conceptual definitions or research variables as well as high quality methods to operationalize them should be apparent Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Reliability & Validity Is a paper and pencil measure of depression really measuring depression? Or it is measuring something else, such as loneliness, low self-esteem, or stress? Another aspect of validity concerns the quality of the researcher’s evidence regarding the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable Did a nursing intervention really bring about improvements in patient’s outcomes or were other factors responsible for patient’s progress? Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Bias It can threaten the study´s validity Bias is an influence that produces a distortion (Any undesired change in an signal between input and the output) in the study results Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Bias Bias can result from a number of factors including: Study participants Subjectivity of the researcher Sample characteristics Faulty methods of data collection Faulty study design Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Bias Random bias: a handful of study participants might fail to provide totally accurate information as a result of extreme fatigue at the time the data were collected Systematic bias; results when the bias is consistent or uniform. E.g. If a scale consistently measured peopl´s weights as being 2 ponds heavier than their true weight, they would be systemetic bias in the data on weight Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Randomness Each person has an equal probability of being selected, no systemetic biases in the make up of the sample Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Generalizability Generalizability to assess the extent to which the findings can be applied to other groups and settings Design study strong in reliability and validity The type of people to whom the results might be generalized, select them nonbiased Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Research Control Holding constant other influences on the dependent variable so that the tru relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be understood Research control attempts to eliminate contaminating factors that might cloud the relationship between the varaibles that are of central interest Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Research control Researchers must usually analyze a couple of relationships at a time and put pieces together like jigsaw puzzle – (a puzzle that requires you to reassemble a picture that has been mounted on a stiff base and cut into interlocking pieces) Dr Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi devision of anaesthesia and intensive care University of Linkoping Sweden

Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi An Najah National University Faculty of Nursing Overviewof the research process in quantitative studies

Major classes of Quantitative Experimantal research, researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment Nonexperimantal researchers collect data without making changes or introducing RX Experimantal studies designed to rest causal relationship Experimantal offer the possibility of greater control extraneous variables than nonexperimantal

Major steps in a Quantitative studyPhase 1: The conceptual phase • Activities with a stong conceptual or intelletual element • These activities include: • reading, • conceptualizing, • theorising, • reconceptualizing and • reviewing ideas with colleagues or advisers

Major steps in a Quantitative studyPhase 1: The conceptual phase • During this stage, researchers call on such skills as: • creativity, • deductive reasoning (is logic that moves from the general to the specific), (is the kind of reasoning in which the conclusion is necessitated by, or reached from, previously known facts (the premises). • Insight (penetration: clear or deep perception of a situation, a feeling of understanding ) • A firm grounding in previous research on the topic of interest

Step 1; formulating and delimiting the problem Develop a research problem and research questions Good research depends to a great degree on good questions Without significant, interesting problem, the most carefully and skillfully designed research project is of little value How can this question best be studied to yield high quality evidence The identification and research questions must also take into consideration practical and ethical concerns

Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature Quanitative research is typically conducted within the context of previous knowledge To bulid on existing theory or research, quantitative researchers strive to understand what is already known about a research problem A thorough literature review provides a foundation on which to base new knowledge and usually is conducted well before any data are collected in quantitative studies

Step 2: Reviewing the related literature For clinical problems, it is necessary to learn as much as possible about the ”status quo” of current procedures relating to the topic and to review existing practice guidlines or protocols A familiarization with previous studies is useful in suggesting research topics or in identifying aspects of a problem about which more research is needed A litterature review sometimes preceded the delineation (To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out) of the research problem

Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork In addition to refreshing or updating clinical knowledge based on written work, researchers embarking on a clinical study benefit from spending time in clinical settings, discussing the topic with clinicians and health care administrators, and observing current practices.

Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork Sterling (2001) notes that such clinical fieldwork can provide perspectives on recent clinical trends, current diagnostic procedures, and relevant health care delivery models; It can also help researchers better understand affected clients and the settings in which care is provided.

Key Concepts and Terms in Quantitative Research