Thinking About Movies, Theory, and Meaning

1. Thinking About Movies, Theory, and Meaning

2. Film Theory and Film Criticism > Film Theory is a way at looking at movies from a particular intellectual or ideological perspective. It is concerned with many areas of investigation, including: The film text itself - its structural properties and meanings. The film text’s connection to culture and history. The relationship between film and reality and anti-realism (formalist theory). The production of movies as the result of art, economics or technology. Our psychological reaction to the world projected on the screen. >Film Criticism is generally focused on evaluating a film’s artistic merit and appeal to the public.

3. The 3 Phases of Film Theory The First Phase- a formalist movement that spanned from 1916-1935 and included the work of Hugo Munsterberg, Rudolph Arnheim, and Sergei Eisenstein. The Second Phase- a realist reaction to formalism that began with the coming of sound in 1927 and continued to the 1960s and was primarily influenced by Andre Bazin and Siegfried Kracauer. The Third Phase- began in the late 1950s/1960s and continues today and includes a wide range of new interpretive approaches, including: auteurism, feminism, psychoanalytic criticism, Marxism and cultural studies. Among the seminal writers are Laura Mulvey, David Bordwell, Stanley Cavell, and Christian Metz.

4. A Film’s Meaning I Explicit Meaning- everything that a movie presents on its surface. Our ability to notice associations and relationships among the many pieces of information in the film. Implicit Meaning- an association, connection, or inference that a viewer makes on the basis of the explicit story and form of the film. Lying below the surface of explicit meaning- closest to the everyday sense of the word meaning.

5. A Film’s Meaning II Ideological Meaning- body of ideas expressed by a film that reflects beliefs on the part of filmmakers, characters, or the time and place of the movie’s setting. Ideological meaning is the product of social, political, economic, religious, philosophical, psychological, and sexual forces that shape the filmmakers’ perspectives.

6. Interpretive Frameworks

7. Mimesis and Catharsis Mimesis and Catharsis: In the Western tradition, the effect of art on people and society begins with the Greek philosophers and dramatists. On one side you had –most prominently Plato- who viewed the arts as dangerous in their potential influence. Plato opposed the idea of mimesis, the Greek word for the imitative representation of the world in art and literature. On the other side of the Greek debate were the defenders of art. In the Poetics, Aristotle argued that humans acquire knowledge through imitation. More famously, he used the term catharsis-to describe a therapeutic by-product of watching tragedy, which, through fear and pity, purged viewers of such emotions. e.g. In film studies, genres like horror, b-moves, pornography and violent films like Oliver Stone’s Natural Born Killers (1994) or Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ (2004) generate complex issues in discussions about film violence.

8. Binary Oppositions(Dualism) According to structuralist anthropologist Claude Levi- Strauss (b. 1908), all human cultures share an underlying reliance on dualism, the tendency to see the world in terms of opposing binary oppositions-raw/cooked, nature/culture, man/woman, for example. In addition, each binary opposition reveals an underlying tension, a potential conflict that myth or art tries to reconcile. The form of such resolutions reflect the prevailing culture. e.g. In James Cameron’s Terminator films we see the machines vs. humanity. In Terminator 2 (1991) the T-800=“human” and T-1000=“machine”. In Wizard of Oz (1939) It’s A Wonderful Life (1946) we see rural vs. urban and (“There’s no place like home”). Dramatic conflict, in and of itself, creates binary oppositions.

9. MAJOR FILM THEORIES

10. Auteurism The auteur theory postulates that the film director is the “author” of a film. Auteurism has roots in 1920s France; its popularity peaked there in the 1950s with the influential film journal Cahiers du cinema, founded and edited by Andre Bazin. Contributors to this journal and early proponents of this theory (both as critics and directors) included the New Wave filmmakers Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Eric Rohmer and Claude Chabrol. A director must have made a significant body of films (oeuvre) to be considered an auteur.

11. Auteurism II A film director’s style should be as distinctive as a novelist’s and the cinematic style is the DNA by which that author can be identified. In the 1960s, this auteur theory was promulgated by The Village Voice film critic Andrew Sarris. In his influential book, The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929- 1968 his “pantheon” of 14 directors has inspired a great many arguments. Pauline Kael, a longtime critic for The New Yorker, particularly took umbrage with Sarris and his list. Despite its weaknesses, Auteurism is a useful approach to film criticism and helps identify those directors whose work displays ideological and stylistic consistency.

12. Psychological Film Theories: FREUDIANISM Sigmund Freud, the Austrian founder of psychoanalysis, believed that each person has a profoundly influential unconscious. A good deal of this unconscious manifests itself through art, narratives and entertainment and the venting of the unconscious is therapeutic and cathartic.

13. Films with Notable Freudian Influence Ingmar Bergman’s Fanny &Alexander(1982) Alfred Hitchcock’s Spellbound(1945) & Vertigo(1958) Jacques Tourneur’s Cat People(1942) Fred Wilcox’s Forbidden Planet(1956) Ken Russell’s Altered States(1980)

14. Freudian Film Theory Art may reveal emotional dynamics not deliberately fashioned by the artist. Expressions of sexual desire in art are intertwined with incompletely suppressed aggression, fear and guilt. A critic can link an artwork and an artist’s biographical background within an interpretation that reveals unconscious manifestations of desire, aggression, fear and guilt.

15. Psychological Theories:Cognitive Psychology Draws on perceptual psychology and aesthetic studies to explain how we fit elements into orderly patterns, experience joy and sadness through art. Film scholars David Bordwell and Noel Carroll are among the principal proponents of this movement. A viewer is seen as an active participant in the creation of a film’s effects and meaning.

16. Cognitive Psychology II A foundational idea of cognitive psychology is that people use schemas to make sense of a perceptually incomplete world. Schemas are mental concepts that filter our experience. e.g. Films such as M.Night Shyamalan’s SixthSense(1999) requires an active viewer to determine the meaning of the film’s conclusion.

17. Ideological Theory-An Overview Ideological criticism attends to the formal and informal beliefs, feelings and habits of individuals, groups and nations. Films reflect ideology. e.g. Triumph of the Will (1935) Why We Fight (1943-1945) genre film

18. Marxist Film Theory Marxism: a body of doctrine developed by Marx and Hegel in the mid 19th Century. It consists of: A philosophical view of humanity that is non-religious. A theory of history (thesis + antithesis= synthesis). An economic and political program.

19. Marxist Film Theory II The idea of the proletariat as hero, rising up and creating a classless society with prosperity for all was reflected in the films of: >Dovshenko >Eisenstein >Pudovkin >Vertov >Shub

20. Feminism Feminism brings the following issues to the forefront in the movies: A desire for equality with men in society and the arts. The roles of women in society. The patriarchal structure of society. The stereotypes of women. Gender discrimination.

21. Feminist Film Theory Feminist film theory focuses on how the media, and film, in particular, have represented women in a condescending manner as: Objects of desire. Passive beings. Dependent on men.

22. Feminist Film Theory II Two of the most important issues facing feminist film theory are: 1. Deterministic Feminist Theory 2. Liberal- Progressive Feminist Theory

23. Deterministic Feminist Theory Many feminist critiques focus on whether woman and men can challenge patriarchy. Laura Mulvey’s landmark essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema”(1975) stated patriarchy is a systemic condition that is virtually unchangeable because classic narrative cinema views women as objects to be watched. This theory was popular in the 1960’s and early 1970’s.

24. Liberal-Progressive Feminist Film Theory Molly Haskell’s “From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in the Movies”(1974) surveys the unrealistic depiction of women in films. She states that most depictions of women in films made before 1960 are demeaning. Haskell argues that stereotypes should be replaced with images that are real and positive. Today we embrace this form of feminist theory.

25. Cultural Studies In the 1920’s The Frankfurt Institute attempted to incorporate politics, culture, psychology and sociology into a single discipline. (i.e. cultural studies) Works by intellectuals such as Siegfried Kracauer’s “From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of GermanFilm”(1947) opened a new perspective on movies as a popular art rather than a traditional one. A branch of cultural studies called reception theorystudies how the audience received the movie (not its director or theme) evaluating age, politics, sex, class, ethnicity, socio-economics etc. Cultural studies goes deep beneath the surface of a movie to explore implicit and hidden meanings.

26. Applied Readings Let’s now look at a number of films that are well suited to specific critical and theoretical approaches. Although all approaches are broadly applicable to almost any film, some movies yield more interesting answers to particular kinds of questions, as the case studies that follow illustrate.

27. Mimesis and Catharsis: Die Hard Die Hard(1988) presents violence in a form that can entertain and horrify. It becomes perfect fodder for a mimesis/catharsis debate. To explore Die Hard’s treatment of violence, you could do basic research into the film’s reception-reading reviews, criticism, marketing materials, interviews of viewers and fans-to learn how the violence was received and then begin your analysis.

28. Binary Oppositions: Die Hard Compose a list after watching the film such as: >Man versus Woman >Black versus White >West Coast versus East >Local Cops versus FBI >USA versus Japan >USA versus Europe >Outlaw Hero versus Official Hero

29. Freudianism: Wall Street Oliver Stone’s Wall Street(1987)provides a textbook example of a classic Freudian oedipal conflict between a caring and supportive father and his prodigal son. Freud’s central idea is that oedipal aggression expresses itself indirectly, accidentally and unconsciously.

30. Cognitive Psychology: Vertigo Alfred Hitchcock’s brilliant Vertigo(1958)is interesting cognitively for: POV depiction of vertigo effects. Visually dramatic dream sequences. The viewer’s sharing of Scottie’s visions of Madeleine and then his memory of her through Judy. Our ability to remember and recognize a familiar face or profile.

31. Auteurism: Rear Window(1954) Hitchcock’s film is a good example of how the director, together with his cast and crew created a unified work. Hitchcock is an auteur because he is a director who manifests a consistency of style( e.g. shooting in a confined space) and theme (e.g. interest in voyeurism) across his films. Film Slang Oeuvre: the total body of work of a filmmaker

32. Marxism: Metropolis(1927) Fritz Lang’s silent masterpiece was the high point of German expressionism. The sci-fi story presents a society with a social structure much like that described by Marx. The owners live above ground and the slave workers toil beneath. Marxism’s central tenet of exploitation of workers by those who control capital is evident. Hitler’s favorite film!

33. Feminism: Thelma andLouise(1991) Ridley Scott’s film is the first big budget Hollywood film to assert a feminist perspective with its details debatable: The film traffics in stereotypes of male chauvinism. Thelma and Louise take on traditional male roles.

34. Feminism: Thelma and Louise II 3.Thelma and Louise develop into proud, fearless, satisfied people. 4. The road picture and western overlap feminist concerns. 5. The film condemns criminal justice and its failure to protect women victimized by sexual assault. 6. The movie deflects the traditional Hollywood male gaze by allowing T&L to ogle handsome J.D. (Brad Pitt).

35. Cultural Studies: Repo Man(1984) Alex Cox’s low- budget, dark comedy speaks eloquently about social conditions and attitudes. It depicts subcultures of disaffected youth and: Examines the punk movement. Urban legends. Conspiracy theories. Provides a deadpan commentary on American social conditions and attitudes.

36. Buzz Words Cult: any cause, person or object admired by a minority. Cult Movie: Repo Man is a cult film which means that it has a small but devoted audience that admires and values certain aspects of this film. Cult Movies are either ‘so bad they’re good’ (e.g. world’s worst director Ed Wood) or are the objects of a quasi-religious worship (Star Wars).

37. Other Forms of Film Analysis GENRE STUDY The study of individual films within a certain genre. One simple but very effective way of analyzing genre convention and a particular film’s place within a genre is to break down a movie into three discrete temporal aspects: (continued)

38. GENRE STUDY Story Formula-overall plot structure found in a genre. e.g. In the science fiction genre consider the plot of E.T.(1982), or Starman(1984) Scene Convention-In science fiction, the scene in which the visitor exhibits otherworldly powers. Iconic Shot-an immediately recognizable visual symbol. In Sci-Fi this might be homesick shots of the night sky.

39. Film Slang A media franchise is an intellectual property involving  an original work of fiction. Multiple sequels are often planned well in advance and, in the case of motion pictures, actors and directors often sign multi-film deals to ensure their participation. e.g. The Scary Movie(2001-2006) franchise.

40. Genre Homage & Hybridization Wes Craven’s Scream(1996)echoes and plays homage to Psycho(1960),Halloween(1978)and the horror genre itself. Hybridization: the tendency to combine genres in a single film. e.g. Blade Runner(1982)=thriller,sci-fi,adventure & The Matrix(1999)=action, adventure, illusionist sci-fi.

41. Film History Study “The term itself suggests a two-part definition. Film history involves the study of the phenomenon we commonly refer to as ‘film’…Further it involves studying film from a particular perspective and with particular goals in mind-perspective and goals that are historical”. Film historians Douglas Gomery and Robert C. Allen from “Film History, Theory and Practice”(1985)

42. Film History Study II In its broadest sense, film history, examines the development of the movies from their invention in 1895 to the present. Film historiography=different types of historical writing about the cinema. Human conflict has been depicted in the movies not only to entertain but to inspire and educate. e.g. Saving Private Ryan(1998)

43. Film History Study III > Some historical movies are biased or melodramatic. e.g. Birth of a Nation(1915) Gone With The Wind(1939) > Some historical movies tend to smooth- over history’s facts and blur its moral ambiguities. e.g. Scarlet Express(1934) Gandhi(1982) Malcolm X (1992)

44. Types of Film Historiography >The aesthetic approach. Sometimes called the masterpiece or great man approach seeks to evaluate: Individual movies National cinemas Directors >The economic approach Studio system (Hollywood) vs. Independents (“Indiewood”)

45. Types of Film Historiography II >The technological perspective: optics chemistry digital processing >Social history: movies and how they affect culture, society and influence social change.