Download
1 / 113
E N D
The Great Schism 800-1204
'On the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then when the reader has ceased, the presider verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who gives assistance to the orphans and widows, and those who, through sickness or any other cause are in want, and those who are in prison, and the strangers living among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead.‘ Justin Martyr, First Apology, 61.
Orthodox Liturgy • Orthodox liturgy stresses beauty. Its liturgy seeks to perceive the beauty of the spiritual world in worship and express it through their worship. This seems to be a peculiar gift of the Orthodox to the Christian heritage, especially that of Byzantium and Russia. • Orthodox liturgy stresses that worship is nothing less than heaven on earth. The holy liturgy embraces two worlds at once—the liturgy of heaven and earth is the same. When the church gathers for Eucharist, it gathers with the whole church around the world in the heavenly places at the throne of God. The Liturgy of the Presanctified states at the time of the Great Entrance: “Now the celestial powers are present with us, and worship invisibly.” • Orthodox liturgy is primary in their faith and theology. Their approach to religion is primarily a liturgical or doxological one—the Orthodox understand doctrine in the context of worship. The church is first of all a worshipping community. Their invitation to the non-orthodox is to “come and see.” Consequently, ritual is extremely important for the Orthodox.
Contrast: East and West • Vladimir’s envoys reported: “We knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth, for surely there is no such splendor or beauty anywhere upon earth. We cannot describe it to you; only this we know, that God dwells there among humans, and that their service surpasses the worship of all other places. For we cannot forget that beauty.” • In contrast, one Russian cleric responded to worship in 14th century Florence by the Roman church in this way: “What have you seen of worth among the Latins? They do not even know how to venerate the church of God. They raise their voices as the fools, and their singing is a discordant wail. They have no idea of beauty and reverence in worship, for they strike tombones, blow horns, use organs, wave their hands, trample with their feet, and do many other irreverent and disorderly things which bring joy to the devil.”
Various Liturgies • St. Mark’s Liturgy – the liturgy of the Alexandrian (Coptic) Church. • St. James’ Liturgy – the liturgy of the Syrian (Jacobite) Church. • St. Gregory’s Liturgy – the liturgy of Rome in 600 A.D., which is still accepted by Orthodox as a “Western Rite.” • St. Chrysostom’s Liturgy – the primary liturgy of the Greek Orthodox Church and the basis of Slavonic liturgies. • The Medieval Roman Mass – it did not become a uniform liturgy until after the Council of Trent in the 1560s.
Main Parts of the Liturgy • Entrance (Gathering) • Liturgy of the Word • Reading (OT, Epistles, Gospel) • Explaining (Homily) • Prayers (Intercesions) • Liturgy of the Table • Offering (Preparatory) • Consecrating (Prayer) • Communing (Eating & Drinking) • Benediction
The Liturgy of the Word Gloria Collect—prayers of the church Old Testament Readings (followed by Psalms) Readings from Epistles (followed by Psalms) Allelulia Gospel Readings Homily (Sermon) Nicene Creed (Dismissal of Catechumens) The Liturgy of the Table Kiss of Peace Offertory Prayer over the gifts Sanctus Words of Institution Anamnesis Epiclesis Intercessions Lord’s Prayer Fraction Giving of Bread and Wine Communion Song Detailed Aspects of the Liturgy
East A cappella—service is chanted by choir Greek Cross Architecture Leavened Bread Iconostasis Mystical in Mood Surrounded by Icons West Instrumental—use of choirs Roman Cross Architecture Unleavened Bread Altar (sanctuary) area Penitential in Mood Surrounded by Altars East and West: 11th Century
Eastern Stressed a thanksgiving atmosphere in their Eucharist which served theosis, joy and heavenly presence. The table is more eschatological—it is the present table of kingdom reality. Western Stressed the altar, sacrifice of Christ, and penitential dimension of the table. Medieval additions to the liturgy included: Psalm 43 preface, ablutions, “I’m not worthy” priestly prayers, and singing Agnus Dei. Table Difference
The Pisa Cathedral (1063-1350) with Bell Tower (1174-1271) and Baptistry (1153-1265).
Building Churches • Europe saw a “church building” craze in the High Medieval Period. • In 1050-1350 France alone, 80 cathedrals, 500 large churches and 10,000+ parish churches were erected. • As Germanic Europe became Christian Europe, the church building was a cultural as well as a religious symbol. Churches functioned as “civic centers” in the cities and thus were also a source of civic pride.
Ralph Glaber, monk, ca. 1050 “Shortly after the year 1000, all Christian peoples were seized with a great desire to outdo one another in magnificence. It was as if the very world had shaken itself, and, casting off her old garments, was clothing herself everywhere in a white robe of churches.”
Romanesque Style • Where: Western Europe • When: 1000-1200 • Major Building Form: Churches, Castles • Plan: cruciform (Latin Cross), compartmentalized on a basilica plan • Support: sturdy piers, thick walls with small windows • Architectural Features: rounded arches, barrel vault • Décor: stone sculpture
Romanesque Style • Effect: Massive, segmented • Interior: dimly lit by small windows and candles/lamps around the altar. • Inspiration: Roman construction (basilica plan, rounded arches, vaulted ceilings, columns) • Goal: To accommodate pilgrims; to express awe as eyes are drawn to the space above the ambulatory with small windows of light illuminating the altar.
Roots of Division • The linguistic, cultural and political roots are formative as East was divided from West. East and West were strangers to each other—the unity of the early Roman world had gradually disappeared. • Greek dismissed Franks as barbarians. • Franks were suspicious of Greeks. • The theological roots are primarily two: • Rome’s assertion of the primacy of Peter • The addition of “and the Son” (filioque) to the Nicene Creed.
The Struggle for Power in the West • 800-1050: “Kings,” “Emperors,” and “Lords” ruled their territories relatively unencumbered by church authorities. • 1050-1300: Papal authority asserted itself over the church and rulers alike. • The medieval height of papal power was the 13th century (1200-1300).
Hildebrand • German monk • Became Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1084 • Had been influential for many years before • Believed Pope should be supreme power
Three Significant Issues for Gregory VII • Created College of Cardinals • Issued Dictatus Papae • Main issue: Investiture Controversy
Dictatus Papae • 1. Roman Church has never erred, can never err • 2. Pope supreme judge, may be judged by no one, no appeal from him • 3. No synod a general one without his order • 4. He may depose, transfer, reinstate a bishop • 5. He alone is entitled to the homage of all princes • 6. He alone may depose an emperor
Investiture Controversy • Who invests bishops with their authority? • Pope or King? • Kings demanded the right to invest because it was within their lands and the Bishops were usually landed people. • Pope thought he alone should invest bishops with authority due to the nature of ordination. • The controversy was primarily between the Germanic Holy Roman Emperors (Henry III, Henry IV and Henry V) and the Popes from 1060-1120.
Controversy Resolved • Papal Weapons • Interdict • Excommuication • Inquisition • Concordant of Worms (1122) • Holy Roman Emperor could nominate bishops in his lands, but not in Italy. • Bishops would swear oath of loyalty to Emperor because they owned lands there but would also answer to the Pope in spiritual matters.
Innocent III (1198-1216)The Greatest of the Papal Monarchs • Ruled Papal lands • Called the 4th and 5th Crusades. • Used the Interdict 53 times. • Named two Holy Roman Emperors (Otto IV and Frederick II) • Excommunicated the King of France. • Called the 4th Latern Council in 1215.
The Fourth Latern Council, 1215 • Defined the Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church. • Defined the doctrine of transubstantiation. • Required annual confession, penance and Eucharist on Easter. • Affirmed the one, universal church with the Roman Pope at the head of the church. • Charged Cathedrals with providing theological education for clergy. • Regulated the election of bishops and qualifications for clergy. • Jews were excluded from public office and required to wear special identifying clothes.
Theology of Latern Council • “The Father is from none, the Son from the Father alone, and the holy Spirit from both equally, eternally without beginning or end; the Father generating, the Son being born, and the holy Spirit proceeding.” • “Renewing the ancient privileges of the patriarchal sees, we decree, with the approval of this sacred universal synod, that after the Roman church, which through the Lord's disposition has a primacy of ordinary power over all other churches inasmuch as it is the mother and mistress of all Christ's faithful, the church of Constantinople shall have the first place, the church of Alexandria the second place, the church of Antioch the third place, and the church of Jerusalem the fourth place, each maintaining its own rank.”
Relation to “Greeks” at Latern For, after the Greek church together with certain associates and supporters withdrew from the obedience of the apostolic see, the Greeks began to detest the Latins so much that, among other wicked things which they committed out of contempt for them, when Latin priests celebrated on their altars they would not offer sacrifice on them until they had washed them, as if the altars had been defiled thereby. The Greeks even had the temerity to rebaptize those baptized by the Latins; and some, as we are told, still do not fear to do this. Wishing therefore to remove such a great scandal from God's church, we strictly order, on the advice of this sacred council, that henceforth they do not presume to do such things but rather conform themselves like obedient sons to the holy Roman church, their mother, so that there may be one flock and one shepherd.
Theodore Balsamon, Patriarch of Antioch in 1190: “For many years the western Church has been divided in spiritual communion from the other four Patiarchates and has become alien to the Orthodox…So no Latin should be given communion unless he first declares that he will abstain from the doctrines and customs that separate him from us, and that he will be subject to the Canons of the Church in union with the Orthodox.”
Latern Council on Jews • A difference of dress distinguishes Jews or Saracens from Christians in some provinces, but in others a certain confusion has developed so that they are indistinguishable. Whence it sometimes happens that by mistake Christians join with Jewish or Saracen women, and Jews or Saracens with christian women. In order that the offence of such a damnable mixing may not spread further, under the excuse of a mistake of this kind, we decree that such persons of either sex, in every Christian province and at all times, are to be distinguished in public from other people by the character of their dress • It would be too absurd for a blasphemer of Christ to exercise power over Christians. We therefore renew in this canon, on account of the boldness of the offenders, what the council of Toledo providently decreed in this matter : we forbid Jews to be appointed to public offices, since under cover of them they are very hostile to Christians.
Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) • “I am Pope; I am Ceasar.” • Wore imperial as well as papal robes. • Opposed the taxation of clergy by the Kings of England and France. • Issued the Papal Bull “Unam Sanctam” (1302)
Unam Sanctam We are informed by the texts of the gospels that in this Church and in its power are two swords; namely, the spiritual and the temporal. For when the Apostles say: 'Behold, here are two swords' [Lk 22:38] that is to say, in the Church, since the Apostles were speaking, the Lord did not reply that there were too many, but sufficient. Certainly the one who denies that the temporal sword is in the power of Peter has not listened well to the word of the Lord commanding: 'Put up thy sword into thy scabbard' [Mt 26:52]. Both, therefore, are in the power of the Church, that is to say, the spiritual and the material sword, but the former is to be administered _for_ the Church but the latter by the Church; the former in the hands of the priest; the latter by the hands of kings and soldiers, but at the will and sufferance of the priest.
Unam Sanctam However, one sword ought to be subordinated to the other and temporal authority, subjected to spiritual power. For since the Apostle said: 'There is no power except from God and the things that are, are ordained of God' [Rom 13:1-2], but they would not be ordained if one sword were not subordinated to the other and if the inferior one, as it were, were not led upwards by the other.
First Phase: Photius Episode (858-879) • The Orthodox Church calls him Saint Photius the Great—the new Patriarch of Constantinople in 858 (who could not read Latin and almost no one in the West could read Greek—a signal of how culturally distinct East and West were). • Photius was a lay person rather than a priest and thought to be the most educated and brilliant of all the medieval Patriarchs. • However, the previous Patriarch, Saint Ignatius, had resigned under imperial pressure. • Before recognizing Photius, Pope Nicholas I (858-867) decided to investigate the situation and sent legates to Constantinople in 861. • Photius invited the legates to preside at a council to decide the issue and the sided with Photius.
Tension Arises • Nicholas decided the legates had exceeded their authority and retried the case in Rome during 863 and decided that Ignatius was the true Patriarch. • The Orthodox church ignored Nicholas. • The incident reveals the continual struggle of Papal claims: Nicholas wrote in 865 that his authority extends “over all the earth, that is over every church.” • But this is exactly what the Byzantines would not grant.
Jurisdiction Fight • The Orthodox recognized appeals to Rome, but only under the specific conditions of the Council of Sardica (343). • Sardica decreed that a condemned bishop can appeal to Rome and the Pope can order a retrial, but the trial must be conducted by bishops of an adjacent province. • Consequently, the Byzantines ignored Nicholas insistence on the implementation of the Pope’s decision in Rome.
Missionary Conflict • Both Byzantine and the west (Germans) were involved in missionary activity among the Slavs. • This missionary clash raised the issue of filioque which was in the German (Frankish) creed as well their differences over married clergy among other things. • When Khan Boris of Bulgaria was refused autonomy for his national church, he sought out the West. • Photius wrote an Encyclical Letter to all the Patriarchs of the east denouncing filioque and declared it heretical. • Photius declared that the “Spirit proceeds from the Father alone.”
Excommunication • Photius called a council at Constantinople (867) and excommunicated Nicholas as a “heretic who ravages the vineyard of the Lord.” • As a result, the Emperor deposed Photius and reinstated Ignatius who restored communion with Rome and hosted a council that condemned Photius (869-870). • The West later recognized this council as the 8th Ecumenical Council (even though it was not well attended—started with 12 bishops and rose to 103).
Greek Harmony • The Council asked the Emperor to resolve the status of the Bulgarian Church and he assigned it to the Patriarchate of Constantinople which Boris accepted. • In 870, German missionaries were expelled from Bulgaria. • Ignatius and Photius were also reconciled, and upon Ignatius’ death, Photius once more succeeded him as Patriarch (877). • Another Council in Constantinople (879; attended by 383 bishops) reversed the decision of the Council of 869, and accepted without protest from Rome as John VIII (871-882) was hostile to the Germans and perhaps filioque. • Communion between Rome and Constantinople continued.
The Problem of Primacy • In the East, the episcopacy was the center of unity and rooted in the investment of the Holy Spirit in the bishop’s office. • The East had many churches with apostolic foundations. • In addition, the ecumenical councils had recognized the Petrarchy. • In the West, the center of unity was the Pope and it was the only church which could legitimately claim apostolic origins in the West. • In the West, the papal rule was autocratic. • In addition, the Pope was a political leader over the “Papal States.” • In the East, the Patriarch was always working in concert with the Emperor.
East to West: Nicetas, Archbishop of Nicomedia to Pope “My dear brother, we do not deny to the Roman church the primacy amongst the five sister Patriarchates; and we recognize her right to the most honorable seat at an Ecumenical Council. But she has separated herself from us by her own deeds, when through pride she assumed a monarchy which does not belong to her office…If the Roman Pontiff, seated on the lofty throne of glory, wishes to thunder at us and , so to speak, hurl his mandates at us from on high, and if he wishes to judge us and even to rule us and our Churches, not by taking counsel with us but at his own arbitrary pleasure, what kind of brotherhood, or even what kind of parenthood can this be? We should be the slaves, not the sons, of such a Church.” 12th centiury.
Second Phase: The Break (1054) • Emperor Constantine IX and Pope Leo IX were allied against the Normans in Italy, but the Normans were victorious and even imprisoned the Pope. • The Normans imposed Latin customs on conquered Byzantines in Italy, especially the use of unleavened bread. • In response, Patriarch Cerularius in Constantinople imposed leavened bread on the Latin churches there which they refused to do and the Patriarch closed the churches. • Leo, an Archbishop in the Bulgarian church, wrote a letter that was subsequently sent to all the western Bishops condemning their “Judaistic” practices.
The Break • Pope Leo IX ordered a reply and a defense of papal supremacy. • Though Cerularius sought some reconciliation, Leo pressed his claims and sent legates to Constantinople. • The legates published a Greek version of Leo’s reply which stirred riots in the city. • Only July 16, 1054 (though Leo had died on April 19, 1054) placed a Papal Bull of Excommunication on the altar of Hagia Sophia (the Bull only excommunicated Cerularius). • Though the Emperor wanted reconciliation, the riots forced him to acknowledge the break and the legates were anathematized.
History of “Filioque” Filioque was first used in a Persian council in 410, but the strongest advocate of the position was Augustine. The Council of Toledo, Spain (587) added the word to the Nicene Creed. This was probably motivated by its historic problem with Arianism (Goths were Arian Christians). However, the Council at Gentilly in France rejected the addition in 767.
History of “Filioque” • However, Charlemagne, who always spoke derisively of the “Greeks,” had insisted on its use because it was widely used in the Frankish (Germanic) regions just as unleavened bread was and celibacy required for priests. • Charlemagne sought the title of Holy Roman Emperor rather than let that title remain with the Byzantine emperor. The two were now competing Emperors. • In 809 Pope Leo III forbade the addition to the Nicene Creed and Rome continued to oppose it, with a few exceptions, into the 11th century. It was added in 1014 when Emperor Henry II insisted. • The clause became a permanent part of the Western recitation of the creed in 1014.
