READING AND REFERENCING

1. READING AND REFERENCING

2. Bad Reading Habits The following are some of the bad habits which tend to cause people to read slowly. a. Moving your lips when you read Moving your lips slows you to a fast talking rate b. Vocalizing Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words. • Reading everything at the same speed • Regressing :Rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need. Sometimes, it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual, unnecessary regressing really slows you down.

3. e. Reading one word at a time • Slow readers tend to see only one word at a time. • Good readers will see several words at a time and their eyes will stop only three or four times as they move across a page.

4. Useful places to look in a book 1) Outside the main text • Table of Contents – shows chapter headings and their page locations. • Guide to the User (especially for Reference books) like an encyclopedia or dictionary. This informs the reader how the information has been packaged and explains the process of locating information easily. • Introduction/Preface/ Author’s or Publisher’s note/ These are usually the writer’s or editor’s summary of what the book is about, or the way the subject has been treated. It may usually include some useful background information.

5. Index – • An alphabetical list of every subject or name mentioned in t he book and all pages in which the item is mentioned. • The index is very useful for locating specific information without reading whole chapters.

6. Index page from Introduction to Human Communication, Gibson and Hanna (19992: 475). F facial expression, 104-5 fallacies, 219-23 false authority, 222-23 feedback defined, 16-17 giving, 152-62 immediacy of, 118 importance of, 151-53 obtaining, 162-65 feelings, See also emotions defined, 148

7. Reviews of the book: This is usually an evaluation or appraisal of the contents of the book by a reviewer or reviewers. • Publisher’s blurb – a short description of the contents of the book by the publisher; this may also be on the jacket. b. Within the text • Chapter headings and sub-headings- surveying chapter headings helps you locate specific information. • Chapter introductions – Introductions and summaries of chapters may explain what the chapter contains. The concluding part of the chapter may also sum up the main ideas discussed in it. • Chapter summaries

8. Citing sources a) a single author/editor b) two or more authors/editors c) an article or chapter in a book d) an article in a journal/newspaper/magazine e) an article or document from a website f) a document from an Organization/institution g) theses, project reports, etc h) others- tv, radio, etc.

9. Name(s) of author(s) - in the order: Surname, Other name(s) or initials. • Year of publication Agyekum, Kofi (2008) Soyinka, W. (1979) • Title of book/article • (If article or chapter) Title of book, journal or magazine in which it appears. • If journal, indicate volume number, and pages • Place of Publication • Publisher • Example: Hudson, R.A. 2001Sociolinguistics. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

10. Name(s) of author(s) One author: Agyekum, Kofi (2008) Two authors: Peek P. M. and K. Yankah (eds.) (2004) More than two authors: Sacks H. et al. (1974) Documenting different types of works a) A work by a single author Holmes, Janet. (1995) Women, Men and Politeness. London. Longman. Kolawole, M. E. M. (ed.). (1998) Gender Perceptions and Development in Africa. Lagos, Arrabon Academic Publishers.

11. b) A work by two authors • Where a work has two authors, the first writer must be listed by surname first, the second name may begin with an initial before the surname. • Brown, P. & Levinson, S. 1987.Politeness: Some universals in language use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Obeng Samuel, & Stoeltje Beverly J. (2002) Women's Voices in Akan Juridical Discourse Africa Today 49 (2) 21

12. Peek P. M. and K. Yankah (eds.) 2004. African Folklore. New York. Routledge.  The (eds.) indicates that the two are editors of the work; they are not the sole authors.

13. c) An article or chapter in a book Goodwin, Majorie, H. 1998. Cooperation and Competition across Girls’ Play Activities. In Language and Gender– A Reader. Jennifer Coates (ed.) Oxford. Blackwell Publishers Limited (121-146). d) An article in a journal Mbaya, Maweja. 2002. Linguistic Taboo in African Marriage Context: A Study of the Oromo Laguu. Nordic Journal of African Studies 11(2): 224-235.

14. e) An article in a newspaper or magazine Yakubu, Afi. 1997. Women and Traditional Authority. West Africa Magazine. 27th Dec. 1997- 11th Jan. 1998 (2031-2033). Zoure, Stephen. ‘Witches’ Trapped. Daily Guide, No. 118/10.Monday, May 24, 24, 2010. Accra: Western Publications. (p. 10).

15. f) An article or document from a website • Churchill, Allegra. 1997. Under the Kapok Tree: Explorations in DagbonAfrican Diaspora ISPs. Paper 26. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/african_diaspora_isp/26 (accessed 3.6.10) g) A document from an Organization Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1990. “Strengthening Animal Health Services in Developing Countries. Rome. Processed. Ghana Statistical Service. (GSS) 2000. Population and Housing Census – Northern Region. Analysis of District Data and Implications for Planning.

16. h) An unpublished thesis Hudu, F. 2010. Dagbani tongue-root harmony: a formal account with ultra-sound investigation. PhD. Thesis. University of British Columbia. https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/.../ubc_2010_fall_hudu_fusheini.pdf (accessed16.12.11) Nabilla P.A. 2000. Traditional Socialization and Women’s Empowerment: A Study of Adolescent Gender Socialization in Dagbon. Unpublished MPhil Thesis, University of Ghana.

17. Titles of books and articles Note that titles of books and journals are distinguished by the use of different font styles. Titles of books and titles of journals are typed in italics while titles of articles are in normal type. (i) Peek P. M. and K. Yankah (eds.) 2004. African Folklore. New York. Routledge. African Folklore is the title of a book by Peek and Yankah.

18. (ii) Mbaya, Maweja. 2002. Linguistic Taboo in African Marriage Context: A Study of the Oromo Laguu. Nordic Journal of African Studies 11(2): 224-235. “Linguistic Taboo in African Marriage Context: A Study of the Oromo Laguu” is the title of an article; it is in normal type. Nordic Journal of African Studies is in italics because that is the name of the journal in which this article appears.

19. When you use hand writing the titles of books and journals should be underlined while the titles of articles are placed within quotation marks. (i) Peek P. M. and K. Yankah (eds.) 2004. African Folklore. New York. Routledge. (ii) Mbaya, Maweja. 2002. “Linguistic Taboo in African Marriage Context: A Study of the Oromo Laguu. Nordic Journal of African Studies 11(2): 224-235.

20. Abercombie, D. (1968) Paralanguage. British Journal of disorders of Communication. 3 (55-9) Adetunji, Akinbiyi (2010) Aspects of Linguistic Violence to Nigerian Women. The International Journal - Language Society and Culture. Issue 31, (10-17). Barker, Peter (1986) People, Languages and Religion in Northern Ghana.Asempa Publications. Accra Pauwels A (2003) Feminist Linguistic Activism – Non-sexist Language Reform. In J. Holmes and M. Meyerhof (eds.) The Handbook of Language and Gender. Malden. Blackwell Publishing

21. Peek P. M. and K. Yankah (eds.) 2004.African Folklore. New York. Routledge. Sacks, H., E. Schegloff and G. Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematic for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language.50 (696-735). Ssetuba, Issac (2005) The Hold of Patriarchy: An Appraisal of the Ganda Proverb in Modern Gender Relations.’ In Gender, Literature and Religion in Africa.CODESRIA Gender Series 4. Dakar. (37-47)

22. EXAMS • Exam preparation must be a semester-long process • It starts the first day of class and includes all class attendance, listening, questioning, note-taking, reading, writing, and review activities done up to the time of the exam. • Do no wait to cram everything the night before.

23. Instead, you need a more systematic approach to test preparation built on: • Good time management principles, • daily and weekly review sessions, • and multiple views of the material.   • It is important to record the dates, times, and places of your exams.

24. Test Anxiety • There is no doubt about it, for most people, testing is stressful. • Symptoms of test anxiety are of two general types, emotional and physical. • Emotional indicators can include • feelings of panic, • shortened temper/anger, • crying, • excessive frustration, • confusion and disorientation, • loss of memory, • procrastination, • negative thoughts, • and depression.

25. Physical indicators might consist of • rapid heartbeat, • nausea, • shakiness, • tight muscles, • headaches, or • excessive sweating. Test anxiety can be unlearned. The first step is to determine the source of your anxiety

26. Identifying Sources of Test Anxiety • In the simplest case, test anxiety is caused by a lack of preparation. • Knowing that you're under-prepared can cause high levels of stress and anxiety. • This type anxiety can be overcome quickly- practice and apply proven study strategies as means of alleviating the stress you feel.

27. However, more complicated forms of test anxiety are: • fear of failure, • feelings of helplessness, and • threats to self-worth.

28. Fear of failure can generate anxiety from many different sources. • worry that you will not live up to the expectations of family and friends. • concern that you will embarrass yourself by earning poor grades. • Etc.

29. Feelings of helplessness • Students may miss the connection between their own behavior and their exam outcomes. • They blame their performances on • the difficulty of the test, • the inadequacy of the instructor, or • other circumstances outside their control. • Instead of blaming their poor showing on their own lack of preparation,

30. This external focus of blame leaves them feeling victimized, helpless, out of control, and anxious. • As a result, they waste valuable time contemplating their own predicament and then don't study because they are convinced "it won't help anyway".

31. Threats to self-worth • Students insist on measuring their self-worth against the A-B-C-D-F standard. • test anxiety increases when too much emphasis is put on grades. • These negative feelings erode their confidence and contribute to feelings of helplessness. • These feeling of low self esteem, helplessness, and failure will often manifest themselves in "negative self-talk".

32. "Negative self-talk" • when students unknowingly increase their test anxiety by reinforcing negative beliefs about themselves and their circumstances. • Negative thoughts such as "I hate this class,""I can't do this," "I'm going to fail this test,""I've never been good at taking tests," • "This instructor writes terrible, unfair tests," and the like, set a tone that increases anxiety and sabotages success.

33. Step Two: Dealing with Test Anxiety • Try the following tips as they apply to your symptoms of test anxiety. • Always be as prepared as you can be. Then be satisfied and give yourself credit for your hard work. • Work hard across assignments, across classes, and across semesters. • Makes the performance on an individual exam less critical and a smaller piece of a greater plan.

34. 3. Resist the temptation to blame your circumstances and outcomes on situations and people you can't control. • It is important to recognize your own contributions and to focus on what you can control - your own behavior. • A belief that you can control your outcomes will motivate you to work harder, lead to greater rewards, and in turn will reinforce your sense of control.

35. Fight the urge to become preoccupied and distracted by thoughts and concerns unrelated to exam content. • Learn to recognize "negative self-talk" and combat it with positive, self-supportive statements such as "I am well prepared for this test.", "I have done my best.", "I do understand the material.", and "I am learning."

36. 1. Multiple-Choice Test Strategies: • Work quickly. Don't waste time on difficult questions. • Mark them and come back to them later. • Do the easy questions first. 2. Problem-Solving Test Strategies: • Once the test starts, write down hard to remember formulas, equations, rules, etc. that you are likely to use, even before you review the questions.

37. ii. Don't waste time on difficult questions. Mark them and come back to them later. iii. Do the easy questions first. Go through them in order. Essay Exam Test Strategies: • Scan the test immediately to determine the number of questions and their relative worth. Then budget your time according to importance/value of questions. • Note those instances where you have a choice of questions.

38. Read the question carefully. Be sure you understand the question asked and answer it directly. • Underline key words or terms, such as what, how, who, and why. • Watch for instructions such as discuss, compare and contrast, or explain.

39. Compare –determine similarities or differences • Contrast –point out differences • Discuss- consider all parts of the issue in detail • Analyze – To determine relationship of the parts. • Explain- give details or decribe

40. 15 Tips for Succeeding on the Day of the Exam: • Wake up early so that you do not need to rush through having breakfast and getting ready. • Check the venue and time of the exam to make sure that you have not confused the day/time/venue. • Have a balanced breakfast and eat nothing risky (probably not the best day to have a super-hot curry!). Bananas are always a good option.

41. Before leaving home, check that you have everything that you will need – ID, stationery, map to the exam venue, etc. • Head to the exam with plenty of time. A lot of unexpected events can happen on your way there and you do not want to be late! • If there are people around who are panicking, avoid them. They are not doing you any favour!

42. Go to the toilet before the exam starts. Exams can be quite long and there is no time to waste. • Remember to write your name on the exam paper. You would not believe how many people have forgotten to do it! • Read all the questions carefully before starting and quickly plan how much time to allocate to each. • Start answering the questions that you feel most confident about. There is no need to answer the questions in order.

43. If your brain freezes, just start writing anything and you will soon start remembering more details. • Don’t spend more time than you planned on a particular section/question or you might run out of time to answer other questions and gain those extra marks! Also,  leave any questions that you are unsure about for the end. • Don’t be afraid to ask the examiner if you are not clear on a question. • Use every minute of the exam and if you have time left, review your answers before handing back the paper. • Stay calm, you have done your homework and have nothing to fear!