The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism

1. The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism Chapter 20

2. Key Topics • Napoleon’s rise, his coronation as emperor, and his administrative reforms • Napoleon’s conquests, the creation of a French Empire, and Britain’s enduring resistance • The invasion of Russia and Napoleon’s decline • The reestablishment of a European order at the Congress of Vienna

3. Overview of the Napoleonic Era • 1790s; the new property owners of the French Revolution(they were particularly peasants) were loosing confidence in the Directory. • The citizens 'army, which had successfully defended the revolution,seemed better able to maintain order. • Napoleon was the most smart general of the army. Once in power; • Consolidated many of the achievements of the revolution • But ultimately overthrew the republic and declared himself emperor • Turned France’s army into an instrument for conquest and waged offensive war for more than 10 years. • With the rise of patriotic feelings all around Europe, new nationalism was born. • This created alliances among Napoleon’s enemies that enabled them eventually to overwhelm him. • This era saw the flowering of the romantic movement, a new phase in the history of European culture. (e.g. nationalism, respect for history and religion) (Kagan, et. al. 2003, p.371)

4. Directory; The democratic constitution of 1793 (not been put into effect because of war conditions) was replaced by ‘Constitution of the Year III’ which allowed for representative government through a bicameral legislature which selected a 5-man executive body known as the Directory, but property qualifications for voting were introduced, in effect blocking the participation of the poorer sections of society

5. The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte Early Military Victories • The major Problem was; the restoration of the stability of France . • The chief danger to the Directory came from royalists. They believed in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy to restore the stability of France. • 1797: Spring elections Constitutional monarchists and their sympathizers won the majority of offices • 4th Sep, 1797:The Directory staged a coup d’etat to preserve the republic • What happened as a result of this coup d’etat? Men loyal to the Directory took control of the legislature; They imposed censorship; Exiled some of thier enemies; Asked Napoleon Bonaparte to protect the government.

6. Napoleon Bonaparte(1769-1821) He was the officer who had put down the riots spawned in 1795 by the Thermidorian Reaction( Property qualifications for voting were introduced by Directory which blocked the participation of the poorer sections of society. This le dto riots against Directory. Soldiers, however, were given the right to vote. With their support the Directory managed to stay in power. ) Born on the island of Corsica in 1769, (justa year after island came under French control), Napoleon was a “Child of the Enlightenment”, who rose quickly through military ranks to become a general & hero in revolutionary France. Twice he came with his soldiers to defence of the Directory. Yet, while commonly calleda military “genius”,he alsoledmilitarycampaignsthat had terrible results.

7. Edmund Burke’s Prediction:True or False? Burke (1729-1797) was a British parliamentarian & political philosopher sometimes referred to as the ‘father of conservatism’. Written straight after the French Revolution began, Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) was strongly antirevolutionary, arguing that revolution would alsodestroy all that was good in society, create disorder, & lead ultimately to the coming to power of a tyrant seen as capable of restoring order.

8. Early Military Victories of Napoleon Bonaparte • 1796 & 1797 he had spectacular military successes against Italian & Austrian forces, & Austria forced to accept peace. • 1797 he again came to the defence of the Directory against its (& Napoleon’s own) royalist enemies. • 1798 he invaded Egypt. The campaign became doomed to failure when his fleet was destroyed by British Admiral Nelson, (making it impossible for him to get the fresh supplies & men). By 1802, with continued pressure from the Ottomans & British, Napoleon forced to completely abandon the Egyptian campaign. He had personally already left his troops & returned to France (some say thereby committing treason[the crime of betraying one’s government ]), in Aug.1799.

9. The Rise of Napoleon BonaparteThe Constitution of the Year VIII • As a result of the loss of confidence in the Directory, one of the directors( the Abbe Sieyes) planed a plot to establish a new government. • He visioned an execute strong enough to ignore the whims(desires and caprices) of the electorate. • Sieyes asked Napoleon for his military assistance. • 9th November(18 Brumaire), 1799: Troops commanded by Napoleon dispersed the legislature and cleared the way for Sieyes’s faction to propose a new constitution. (Coup d'état of Brumaire) • December, 1799: But, Napoleon swept him aside and issued the Constitution of the Year VIII. • Under the Constitution of the Year VII (1799) Napoleon, as First Consul became the most powerful man in France, & 5 years later, in 1804, declared himself Emperor.

10. The Constitution of the Year VIII • This seemed like a republican and democratic gesture. • But this document vested full authority in a magistrate called the First Consul, the office claimed by the Napoleon. • He mainly combined the military force and the popular rhetoric of revolution and nationalism to mobilize a nation for imperial expansion.

11. French Revolution from different perspectives The French Revolution ended with Napoleon’s Consulate. For the members of the Third Estate, it had achieved its goals Hereditary privilege was abolished Obstacles to the careers of professionals and merchants had been removed The peasants were satisfied with the land they had acquired and the termination of their feudal duties. The propertied class( politically influential and conservative) did not want to share their new privileges with the lower social orders. They believed that Napoleon would provide the best defence for the status quo, thus approved his constitution in a national plebiscite.

12. The Consulate in France(1799-1804)Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Options • 1800-1802; he maked peace with France’s enemies( Russia, Austria, Britain). • Having secured the nation externally, he set about restoring peace internally. • He courted his enemies, issued a general amnesty, and provided employment for people of all political persuasions. • He created a highly centralized administration.

13. The Consulate in France(1799-1804)Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church • For Napoleon religion was an instrument of social control. He was determined to mobilize it for the benefit of the state. • 1801: He concluded a concordat with Pope Pius VII. He restored the official status of the Roman Catholic Church, but not any power or independence. Its clergy had to swear an oath of loyalty to the state. • The church gave up claims to the property. State paid their salaries and provided them financial support. • The influence of Roman Catholicism was further countered by extending privileges to Protestant and Jewish groups.

14. The Civil Code of 1804 The Consulate in France(17991804) The Napoleonic Code • In 1802 a plebiscite granted Napoleon the office of consul for life. • He then revised the constitution to give himself supreme power. • He centralized the authority by issuing a new codification of French law-The Civil Code of 1804- so called Napoleonic Code. • It safeguarded property and established social order. Confirmed the abolition of privileges based on birth. State offices were no longer to be sold, appointments were to be made on the basis of merit Workers organizations were forbidden. Fathers were granted extensive control over their children and men over their wives. Also introduced rational measures & practices in administration of Empire, supported the sciences & expanded scope of education.

15. The Consulate in France(1799-1804)Establishing a Dynasty In 1804, a failed assassination attempt gave Napoleon an excuse to end the republic and declare himslef emperor.

16. From Consul to Emperor Napoleon placing the crown on his own head, instead of being crowned by the head of the Church (1804)

17. Consul vs. Emperor Note the plainer appearance of Napoleon as Consul, compared to the much more grand scene of him once his imperial ambition had been revealed & he had seated himself as Emperor

18. Napoleon’s Empire(1804-1814) • Between his coronation as emperor in 1804 and his defeat at Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon conquered most of Europe. • His weapon was French nation itself. A nation that had been militarly mobilized by its revolution.

19. Napoleonic Wars • Napoleon’s rule saw an almost constant series of wars in Europe. He had risen to power at a time of military crisis, but defeated &/or made peace with all his enemies by 1802. (Including the Concordat made with the Catholic Church). After spending some time on internal reforms & the consolidation of his power, Napoleon soon turned to vision of establishing a great empire. • Peace finally made with Britain in 1802, but by 1803 the 2 countries were at war again. By 1805 the British had organized a new coalition & opposition to France was eventually to include Prussia, Russia, Austria & Sweden. Again displaying his military “genius” Napoleon defeated his enemies one by one, forcing them to accept peace, (notably with Russia in the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807); Only Britain remaining at war, & she having only a limited land army. It was only the sixth coalition of 1812-1814 which finally decisively defeated the French.

20. Napoleon’s “Grand Empire” SatelliteStates

21. Napoleon’s Empire(1804-1814)The Continental System(I) • Napoleon considered an invasion of Britain, even with its superior navy & natural defence as an island. Thought that by diverting British ships to other areas & opening up Channel for 24 hours he could find gap to land a French army in Britain. With decisive defeat of French navy (& allied Spanish forces) in Battle of Trafalgar, even this idea became impossible, & instead Napoleon turned to economic warfare to defeat Britain.

22. Napoleon’s Empire(1804-1814)The Continental System(II) • The Continental System was based on idea of embargo. Industrial Revolution was advancing in Britain, the center of manufacturing in Europe. Napoleon believed Britain’s economy would collapse if it could not sell products on European markets. Having conquered or allied with all major powers in continental Europe, Napoleon issued Berlin Decree of Nov. 1806, forcing rest of Europe to stop importing from Britain. All, except Portugal, complied, but embargo ended-up hurting these European territories more than Britain (!), & ultimately they began to oppose Continental System. On Dec 31st 1810, Russia declared it would no longer accept Continental System. Napoleon felt betrayed by Tsar Alexander I.

23. Reasons for the Failure of the Continental System • British Counter-Blockade of continental Europe • Insufficient alternative means of transportation (i.e. alternatives to sea routes) • Infant Industries of mainland Europe unable to replace previous supply of goods from Britain. • Britain made up for lost trade with Europe by finding new markets around the world(North and South America, easternMediterranean) • British monopoly of many “luxury goods” • Smuggling; Napoleonrefusedtohelpthingsbyestablishingfreetradewithin his empire and he imposedtariffsthatfavoredFrance and thisencouragedsmuggling.

24. His conquests spread the Enlightenment reforms and the ideals of France’s revolution. He imposed Napoleonic Code in everywhere he ruled. Hereditary social distinctions were abolished, feudal dues disappeared, peasants were freed from serfdom, the guilds and oligarchies that had long dominated urban life were deprived of power, churches were subordinated to the state and policies of religious toleration replaced church monopolies.(p. 375)

25. March on Moscow ... & back!

26. Napoleon’s Russian Campaign • Napoleon raised a massive army, the “Grand Army” of around ½ a million men (by some estimates more!). Yet, only about ⅓ were Frenchmen (& thus likely less committed to his cause). On June 23rd 1812 the campaign began • Things did not go according to plan! Napoleon had intended a short campaign, (his army had only 3 weeks worth of supplies), with a decisive battle against Russian forces close to the Russian border. The Russians, however, withdrew deeper & deeper into the Russian heartland forcing Napoleon’s forces to follow

27. Napoleon’s Russian Campaign (2) • Many of Napoleon’s men began to die as the harsh Russian winter set in, & the Russian “scorched earth” policy (burning the lands they left-behind as they withdrew) meant that Napoleon’s forces could find little food or shelter. Hunger & disease spread. • Despite eventually taking control of Moscow, (whichwasalso put on fire beforetheyentered) Napoleon’s forces could stay no longer & began to withdrawwithNapoleonhavingconcernsaboutlosingcontrol in Franceitself. On the long, coldmarch back to Paris many more died, often as a result of Russian “hit-and-run” attacks. Only about 20,000 men made it back!

28. Napoleon Enters Moscow

29. The Demise of the “Grand Army” The light grey area represents the size of the Grand Army as it advanced to Moscow, the black shows it as it withdrew from Russia

30. Exile to Elba After being forced to retreat from Russia, Napoleon fought a series of often brilliant battles in an effort to defend his crumbling empire. But, odds grew progressively worse as more states, seeing him weakened, joined the coalition against him. By the end of March 1814 Paris was occupied & on the 11th of April Napoleon was forced to surrender unconditionally. He was allowed to keep the title of Emperor... But his “Empire” was limited to the small island of Elba to which he was exiled.

31. “The Hundred Days” • “The Hundred Days” is name for period during which Napoleon escaped from Elba & returned to France, raising new army (less well-trained) & claiming he would now be satisfied with constitutional monarchy & limited borders for France. • Why didNapoleon begin the Hundred Days? : - Ambition - Concern for Family - Rumors of being exiled further afar • While French people generally greeted their charismatic ruler enthusiastically, & while unpopular restored Bourbon monarch – Louis XVIII – had fled, European powers not convinced by Napoleon’s promises • Napoleon finally defeated by combined force of British & Prussian troops at Battle of Waterloo that began 18th June 1815

32. Louis XVIII was brother of Louis XVI. He was restored to the throne by the European powers upon the defeat of Napoleon. (Louis XVI’s son having died in prison in 1795 during the French Revolution – never having been officially crowned). After being forced to flee during the Hundred Days, Louis XVIII returned again to France where he reigned as king till his death in 1824. Louis XVIII Louis XVI Louis XVIII Louis XVII

33. St. Helena ... THE END! The German cartoon on the right ridicules the defeated Napoleon, showing him commanding an army of mice during his exile in St. Helena

34. St. Helena in Perspective The choice of St. Helena was no coincidence. Unlike Elba, this island was not as pleasant a location. In the middle of the South Atlantic, thousands of miles from any major land-mass, escape was now virtually impossible. It was here that Napoleon was to die in 1821