Are you Motivated? You Don’t Look Motivated!

1. Are you Motivated?You Don’t Look Motivated! Clark C. Barrett

2. Motivation Motive, impulse, incentive, inducement, spur, goad, prod Prime mover Driven

3. Outline • Motivation • Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic • Theories • Non-theory • Need-Motive-Value Theories • Cognitive Choice Theories • Thomas’ Model • Origins • The Model • Taking Action • Paradigm Shifts • The Leadership Connection • Sources Driven

4. Motivation • The force that drives people to behave in a way that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior • Individual variability in behavior not due solely to: • a) Individual differences in ability • b) Environmental demands • 3 major dependent variables ØØ 1. Direction of behavior ØØ 2. Intensity of action ØØ 3. Persistence of behavior Driven

5. General Model of Performance Ability Situational Constraints Behavior Performance Motivation Driven

6. Extrinsic means external to a thing, its essential nature, or its original character; applies to what is distinctly outside the thing in question or is not contained in or derived from its essential nature Motivators Reinforcers, Punishers & Incentives Like money, gold stars, treats, prizes, grades and praise OR Better jobs, promotions, salary increase, and the like Intrinsic belonging to the essential nature or constitution of a thing; originating or due to causes within a body, organ, or part Motivators Comes from doing the thing itself Desire for increased self-esteem, quality of life, responsibility, job satisfaction, and the like Motivation Driven

7. Theories of Work Motivation A. Non-Theories of Motivation •  1.Reinforcement Theory • (Skinner et. al) Three key concepts: ØØ 1. Stimulus ØØ 2. Response ØØ 3. Reward Evaluation of Reinforcement Theory • Principles of reinforcement theory do “work” • Theory is still an incomplete picture of human motivation Driven

8. Theories of Work Motivation B. Need-Motive-Value Theories Emphasize the role of personality traits and stable needs and values • 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory • 2. Alderfer’s ERG Theory (Not addressed) • 3. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory • 4. Job Characteristics Theory • 5. Cognitive Evaluation Theory Driven

9. ESTEEM • Concerned with the desire of people to have a stable, high evaluation of themselves and to have respect from other people • EGO • Creation of jobs with scope of achievement, autonomy, responsibility, and personal control. Work enhancing personal identity Feedback and recognition for good performance (e.g. promotions, “employee of the month” awards) Deficit (d-) Needs • BELONGING • Deal with the need for friendship, affection, affiliation, sometimes referred to as social needs • SOCIAL • Work organization that permits interaction with colleagues Social and sports events. Office and factory parties and outings • SECURITY • Concerned with providing a safe and secure environment, free from threats to one’s existence • SECURITY • Pension and health care plans. Job tenure. Emphasis on career paths within the organization PHYSIOLOGICAL Basic to survival of organism and includes food, water, rest, shelter, air, etc. PHYSIOLOGICAL Salaries and wages Safe and pleasant working conditions Theories of Motivation TYPE OF NEED Generic definitions TYPE OF NEED Workplace examples • 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory • SELF-ACTUALIZING • Encouragement of complete employee commitment Job a major expressive dimension of employee’s life SELF-ACTUALIZATION Refers to the desire to achieve self-fulfillment, to develop one’s potential to the fullest, to become everything that one is capable of becoming, and to achieve fulfillment of one's life goals EXTRINSIC…………INTRINSIC Driven

10. Zero Level Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction Hygiene Factors Overlap Motivator Factors No Satisfaction Satisfaction Zero Level Theories of Motivation • 3. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory • Hygiene Factors vs. Motivator Factors EXTRINSIC…………INTRINSIC Driven

11. Theories of Motivation • 4. Job Characteristics Theory • (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) • Five core job dimensions ØØ     Skill variety  ØØ     Task identity  ØØ     Task significance  ØØ     Autonomy  ØØ     Task feedback • Motivational Potential Score (MPS) Driven

12. Theories of Motivation • 4. Job Characteristics Theory (cont.) • (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) • 3 critical psychological states ØØ     Experienced meaningfulness of the work ØØ     Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work ØØ    Knowledge of actual results of the work This theory replaced Herzberg’s theory for organizational settings. Focuses on task outcomes only, does not account for activity-related awards. Knowledge of results and experienced responsibility are only rewarding when results are positive. Driven

13. Theories of Motivation • 5. Cognitive Evaluation Theory • (Deci, 1971) • Motivation is a function of the desire to fulfill higher order needs ØØNeed for competence ØØNeed for self-determination • Use of extrinsic rewards only satisfies lower order needs • Intrinsic motivation undermined by organization’s focus on extrinsic rewards (?) • External events have controlling aspect and information aspect • Deci presents the importance of autonomy and authenticity • Focuses on task activities, (i.e. choice), but not task purposes (i.e. meaningfulness) Driven

14. The Overjustification Effect • Individuals offered extrinsic rewards for continued performance of an interesting task show decreases in intrinsic motivation ØØPerceived decrease in self-determination ØØRewards seen as controlling ØØGoals shift from learning/mastery to gains in terms of rewards ØØPersistence only lasts until extrinsic motivator is gained ØØExtrinsic motivators may not always exist ØØExtrinsic motivators may not inoculate against feelings of discouragement ØØMay begin seeking out easy goals •  Other “controlling” factors: ØØTask deadlines ØØLimited choice ØØContingent rewards ØØNegative feedback ØØEvaluation by others ØØCompetition Driven

15. Punished By Rewards • Kohn explains that rewards fail for five reasons: ØØ 1. Rewards punish ØØ 2. Rewards rupture relationships ØØ 3. Rewards ignore reasons ØØ 4. Rewards discourage risk-taking ØØ 5. Rewards destroy intrinsic motivation for the things we do Fundamentally Kohn; and many other advocates against extrinsic motivators, view the use of rewards (or punishments) as “Do this and you’ll get that!” Driven

16. Punished By Rewards • Kohn suggests six methods to reduce the impact of rewards: ØØ 1. Get rewards out of people faces. ØØ 2. Offer rewards [only] after the fact as a surprise. ØØ 3. Never turn the quest for rewards into a contest. ØØ 4. Make rewards as similar as possible to the task. ØØ 5. Give people as much choice as possible re: use of rewards. ØØ 6. Try to immunize individuals against the motivation-killing effects of awards. KOHN’S FACTORS TO BUILD INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ØØCollaboration requires that the members of the group or classroom rally around the true concept of working together for the success of the group. ØØContent requires that the task, job, or learning experience cover a fulfilling and rewarding role. (this might be called Meaningfulness) ØØ People must be afforded the maximum amount of Choice in what and how they perform their tasks or work. This facilitates buy-in and participation. Driven

17. Meta-analytic Reviews • A. Cameron & Pierce (1994) ØØFound no evidence of harmful effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation • Remember Deci? • B. Cameron & Eisenberger (1996) ØØFound that rewards may enhance intrinsic motivation • C. Eisenberger, Pierce & Cameron (1999) ØØFound no support for negative impact of rewards on feelings of self-determination. Driven

18. Theories of Motivation • B. Cognitive Choice Theories • 1. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965) • This theory is based on the principle of social comparison ØØ Equity considerations ØØ Input/output ratio for self and others • 2 types of inequity ØØ1. Underpayment ØØ    2. Overpayment •  Inequity = Tension Driven

19. Theories of Motivation • 2. Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964) • A cognitive theory that assumes that all people are completely rational decisionmakers • People expend effort on activities that will lead to desired outcomes or rewards • 5 major components to the theory ØØ     Job outcomes ØØ     Valence (V) ØØ     Instrumentality (I) ØØ     Expectancy (E) ØØ     Force (F) Driven

20. Outcome V I E Pay increase 8 .3 .80 Promotion 6 .4 Theories of Work Motivation • VIE Model  F = E ( VI) Example: Increasing job performance Assume that there are two valued outcomes associated with increased job performance F = E ( VI) F = (.80) [(8 x .3) + (6 x .4)] F = 3.84 Driven

21. Intrinsic Motivation • Is that how you get motivated? ØØWith a calculator in hand? ØØWith purely rational thinking? Most of these models fail in one way or another. Driven

22. FOCUS THEORISTS THEORY CONTENT Task Activities Deci & Ryan Cognitive Evaluation Theory Feedback and Rewards Shape Levels of Experienced Choice (Self Determination) and Competence Task Purpose Hackman & Oldham Job Characteristics Model Five Characteristics of Job Design Shape Experienced Meaningfulness, Causal Responsibility for Task Outcomes, and Knowledge of Results Thomas’ Model • Builds on these previous theories of Intrinsic Motivation Driven

23. Thomas’ Model • Intrinsic Task Rewards PSYCHOLOGICAL Rewards (Intrinsic to Person) TASK-RELATED Rewards INTRINSIC NONTASK REWARDS (Psychological Rewards From Membership - Power, Affiliation, Pride in Organization) EXTRINSIC TASK REWARDS (Task Rewards from Others: Pay, Recognition) INTRINSIC TASK REWARDS (Psychological Rewards From Task) Driven “intrinsic motivation involves psychological rewards that individuals derive directly from a task”

24. Sense of COMPETENCE Sense of CHOICE Sense of PROGRESS Sense of MEANINGFUL -NESS Intrinsic Motivation OPPORTUNITY Rewards ACCOMPLISHMENT Rewards • ‘Interpretive’ Model of Empowerment From Task ACTIVITIES From Task PURPOSE Driven

25. Intrinsic Motivation • ‘Interpretive’ Model of Empowerment • Choiceis the opportunity you feel to select task activities that make sense to you and perform them in ways that seem appropriate. The feeling of choice is the feeling of being free to choose - of being able to use your own judgment and act out of your understanding of the task. • Competenceis the accomplishment you feel in skillfully performing task activities you have chosen. The feeling of competence involves the sense that you are doing good, quality work on the task. • Meaningfulnessis the opportunity you feel to pursue a worthy task purpose. The feeling of meaningfulness is the feeling that you are on a path that is worth your time and energy - that you are on a valuable mission, that your purpose matters in the larger scheme of things. • Progressis the accomplishment you feel in achieving the task purpose. The feeling of progress involves the sense that the task is moving forward, that your activities are really accomplishing something. Driven

26. Intrinsic Motivation • Taking Action on with the Empowerment Model CHOICE Delegated authority Trust in workers Security (no punishment for honest mistakes) A clear purpose Information COMPETENCE Knowledge Models Positive Feedback Skill recognition Challenge High, non-comparative standards MEANINGFULNESS A non-cynical climate Clearly identified passions An exciting vision Relevant task purposes Whole tasks PROGRESS A collaborative climate Milestones Celebrations Access to customers Measurement of improvement Driven

27. Personal Level Team Level Sense of Choice Delegated authority Trust in workers Security A clear purpose Information Giving members the right to make decisions relative to their task, including the spending of resources. Trusting members judgment, and giving them the space to exercise it. Supporting experimentation, no blame or punishment for honest mistakes. Deciding upon a clear team objective or direction to guide decision-making. Sharing with team all the information they need to make decisions. Negotiating the right to make your own decisions relative to your task. Listening to and trusting your own judgment. Having the courage to try things you believe will work, not yielding to your fears. Clarifying and negotiating a clear purpose for your task activities. Contacting people to request any information required. Driven

28. Personal Level Team Level Sense of Competence Knowledge models Positive Feedback Skill Recognition Growth Opportunities, Challenge High Non-comparative Standards Providing models of task performance through training, role modeling, mentoring and shared learning. Providing feedback that is more ‘appreciative’ than ‘deficiency focused’. Building on what is done well rather than focusing on mistakes and shortcomings. Giving credit for successes - attributing to skill (rather than luck, others or easy tasks). Stretching team with gradually increasing demands and challenges. Not putting team in competition with one another, ensure recognizing one member’s competence does not threaten others. Networking and researching for models, mentors and training opportunities. Appreciating successes, limiting deficiency focusing, requesting positive feedback. Recognizing the role of your competencies in your successes. Trying new tasks, further developing old tasks. Avoiding self-defeating comparisons to others, learning from their success without fear. Driven

29. Personal Level Team Level Sense of Meaningfulness Non-cynical climate Clear Passions Exciting Vision Relevant Task Purposes Whole Tasks Providing a non-cynical environment that encourages idealism and caring. Developing a shared value system for the team that identifies the group’s priorities. Constructing a vision for the future the team wants to create; ensuring that vision adds value to the world. Adopting task purposes that are clearly related to the vision; sowing their contribution; protecting team from low value busy work. When possible, giving members tasks that are whole projects, or major identifiable portions of a project. Seeking supportive teammates who help nurture your ideals; controlling cynicism. Understanding your own values; seeking teammates who share them; stating your values to teammates. Buying into the vision and making it yours; negotiating necessary changes; building a vision in the absence of one. Ensuring your task purposes contribute to the vision: “What can be done here that is meaningful?” eliminating low value busy work. Negotiating responsibility for whole, identifiable tasks. Driven

30. Personal Level Team Level Sense of Progress Collaborative climate Milestones Celebrations Access to the customer Measurement of improvement Collaborating with team when coordination or support are needed - working together to meet the team’s needs. Providing clear information/direction on key events that will occur in achieving a task purpose. Celebrating team member progress with important milestones. Disseminating customer satisfaction feedback to the team (a measure of task success). On recurring tasks, using customer feedback and other criteria to help team continuously improve task performance. Building collaborative relationships with others involved in your tasks. Developing your internal milestones to achieve your task purposes. Tracking milestones; taking time to recognize and celebrate them. Making contact with your customers to gain feedback on your task performance. Monitoring and continuously improving your task performance. Driven

31. Intrinsic Motivation • “To understand intrinsic motivation, it’s important to see the limitations of the rational-economic (CET) model….At its heart, intrinsic motivation is not about rational calculation - it is about passion and positive feelings people get form their work. These feelings reinforce or energize workers [and] provide the fulfillment that is needed to keep today’s workers on the job. Building motivation, then, is about finding ways to enable and amplify those feelings” - Kenneth Thomas This is a shift in paradigms Driven

32. Perform Activities Commit to a Meaningful Purpose Choose Activities to Accomplish the Purpose Monitor Progress Toward the Purpose Monitor Activities for Competence The Paradigm Shiftin Individuals The Self-Management process Driven

33. Old School (Command and Control) Emerging View (Collegial) The Paradigm Shiftin Management Manager’s Role Worker’s Role Worker’s Motivation Post-industrial Paradigm Leadership and Coaching Self-management Mostly intrinsic Committed to task Gets rewards directly from doing the task well and self management Industrial Paradigm Directing and Controlling Compliance Mostly extrinsic No Commitment to task Responds to carrots and sticks controlled by management Driven

34. Leadership Connection • Leadership is influencing people—by providing purpose, direction, and motivation—while operating to accomplish the mission [or task] and improving the organization. FM 22-100, Department of the Army Driven

35. Leading for CHOICE HANDING OFF Leading for COMPETENCE COACHING Leading for MEANINGFULNESS INSPIRING Leading for PROGRESS SCOREKEEPING and CHEERING The Role of Leadership • Using the ‘Interpretive’ Model of Empowerment • If we incorporate the Team and Personal Actions the end result is: Driven

36. Sources • Deci, E. & Flaste, R. (1996). Why we do what we do: Understanding self-motivation. New York: Penguin. • Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum. • Department of Behavioral Sciences & Leadership, USMA. (1988). Leadership in organizations. Garden City Park, NY: Avery Publishing Group. • Department of Psychology. (2003). Work Motivation. University of Vermont. Retrieved June 15, 2003, from http://www.psyc.vt.edu/courses/sum2003/60924/Motivation.htm • Department of the Army. (1989). Leadership: How to. FORSCOM Pamphlet 600-7. • Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. • Hackman, J.R. & Oldham, G.R. (1980). Work Redesign. Reading, M.A.: Addison-Wesley. • Katzenbach, J.R. (2003). Why pride matters more than money: The power of the world’s greatest motivational force. New York: Crown Business. Driven

37. Sources(cont.) • Kohn, A. (1992). No contest: The case against competition. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. • Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, a's, praise, and other bribes. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. • Lead Institute. (2001). Leadership and intrinsic motivation. Ann Arbor, MI: The General Systems Consulting Group, Inc. • Morgan, G. (1997). Images of organization (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. • Robbins, A. (1991). Awaken the giant within: How to take immediate control of your mental, emotional, physical & financial destiny. New York: Simon & Shuster. • Thomas, K. (1994). Intrinsic motivation at work: Building energy & commitment. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. • Thomas, K. & Jansen, E. (1996). Intrinsic motivation in the military: Models and strategic importance. Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School. Driven

38. Summary • Motivation • Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic • Theories • Non-theory • Need-Motive-Value Theories • Cognitive Choice Theories • Thomas’ Model • Origins • The Model • Taking Action • Paradigm Shifts • The Leadership Connection • Sources Driven