The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)

1. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) Background and causes

2. Context • 1979: Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty • 1979: Iranian Revolution • 1980: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan • 1982: Israeli intervention in the Lebanese Civil War

4. Iran • Originally the Persian Empire • Predominantly Shiite Muslim • Ruled by Shah (king) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941-79) • Close ally of the US until the Iranian Revolution

5. Iranian Revolution (1979) • The Shah’s policies became unpopular: • “White Revolution in 1963” favoured wealthy classes • Heavy reliance on US support • Efforts to secularise Iran • Corruption • Religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini became a political figure after being exiled by the Shah in 1963 • Khomeini successfully spread his political ideology and united opposition groups against the Shah whilst in exile • Demonstrations against the Shah begin in 1977 • Climax in December 1978; over 10% of Iranians demonstrate against the Shah • The Shah is forced to abandon his position in 1979

6. Iraq • Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire • British mandate until 1932 • Arab identity; culturally different from the Persians • 3 distinct demographic blocs • Sunni Muslims (held majority in the government) • Shiite Muslims • Kurdish minority

7. Rise of Saddam Hussein • The Hashemite monarchy is overthrown in a military coup in July 1958 • The coup was inspired by the pan-Arabism movement by Nasser and was discontent with Britain’s heavy influence in Iraq • Another coup in 1963 established the Arab Socialist Baath Party in Iraq. Saddam Hussein was the Party Secretary at this time. • The Baathists formerly seized power in a bloodless coup in 1968. Saddam Hussein is named President Al-Bakr’s Deputy. • Saddam continued to build his power base, forcing Al-Bakr to resign in 1979

8. Shatt al-Arab conflict • The Shatt al-Arab waterway laid at the Iran-Iraq border and was the confluence of many rivers that ran through both Iran and Iraq • Economic importance: The waterway was essential to connect Iraqi and Iranian cities/oilfields to the Gulf • The waterway was critical for Iraq as it had a limited access to the Gulf • The ambiguous border and Iranian support for the Kurds in Iraq led to open conflict in 1974 • The conflict was resolved by the 1975 Algiers Agreement. Iraq agreed to divide the Shatt al-Arab equally in return for peace with Iran.

10. Causes

11. Sunni-Shia divide • Early historians of the Iran-Iraq War contend that the traditional divide between Sunni and Shiite sects contributed to the outbreak of war • The adoption of Shia Islam as the official state religion in Persia during the 16th century caused territorial fragmentation in the Islamic World. Whilst Ottoman rulers sought to re-establish Islamic unity, Persia, under Shah Ismail I, sought to separate itself from the Sunni faith. • The divide caused intense rivalry • Khomeini’s Iranian Revolution can be compared with Shah Ismail’s doctrine, since both advocated Shia teachings and traditions, and undermined the separation of religion and state. • Essentially the war was a re-emergence of this divide

12. Results of the Iranian Revolution • Ayatollah Khomeini seizes power as the Supreme Leader of Iran. Under Khomeini, an aggressive and xenophobic Shiite theocracy is set up. • Khomeini needed a distraction from domestic troubles: • Economic problems inherited from the Shah’s rule • Many who had supported the overthrow of the Shah now mounted in opposition of Khomeini • Iran began to openly denounce the Iraqi Government, supporting Iraqi opposition groups and engaging in border skirmishes • Saddam Hussein saw this as a violation of the 1975 Algiers Agreement

13. Results of the Iranian Revolution • Khomeini advocated to “export the Revolution”. This threatened Iraq, since many Shiite communities in Iraq were underdeveloped and discriminated against. • Iraqi fears of a Shiite rebellion was one of the motivations of Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980

14. Iraqi ambitions • Saddam Hussein wanted to “restore Iraqi-Arab identity” in the region • Saddam wanted to gain full sovereignty of the Shatt al-Arab • Khuzestan in the southwest of Iran became an important ploy in Saddam’s rhetoric: • Called “Arabistan” during an autonomous period in the Persian Empire • It had a predominantly Arab population • It was an oil rich region • Saddam also wanted control of oil rich islands in the Straits of Hormuz • These factors motivated Iraq to invade Iran

16. Ideological conflict • After Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League in 1979, a power vacuum emerged in the Middle East. Iraq hoped to become the new leader of the Arab world. Pan-Arabism became a strong part of Saddam’s rhetoric. • Iran adopted a slightly different doctrine of “pan-Islamism”. However, the ideal was skewed, implying the unification of Muslims under the Shia sect. • These two doctrines both contested for leadership of the Middle East

17. Clash of personalities • The egocentric personalities and dogmatic attitudes of Saddam and Khomeini, contributed to the outbreak of war • The fiery rhetoric on both sides intimidated the other: • Saddam was called a despotic criminal of the Iraqi Shiites • Similar insulting remarks were made about Khomeini • The exaggerated rhetoric misrepresented the concerns of both countries • Khomeini intentionally did this to quell domestic strife • Saddam intentionally did this to establish his position in the Arab world

18. Foreign influence • An arms race was caused by foreign influence in the region cause by Cold War rivalries • US support of Iran during the Shah’s rule • British support of the Iraqi monarchy • Soviet support of the Iraqi Republic (before Saddam) • The result was a significant stockpile of arms on both sides before the outbreak of the war

19. The spark • Iran and Iraq engaged in tit-for-tat diplomacy due to the border skirmishes • Attempted assassination attempt of Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz is blamed on Iran • Iraq invades Iran on 22 September 1980

20. Historiography

21. Majid Khadduri • Iraqi-born historian • Former Iraqi UN delegate • Book: The Gulf War: the Origins and Implications of the Iraq-Iran Conflict. • Argues that: • The origin of the conflict lies in the Sunni-Shia divide • Iran disrespected the Algiers Agreement which represented peace between the two nations • Iraq did it’s best to seek peace regarding border issues after the Iranian Revolution • The invasion was a justified pre-emptive measure

22. Behrouz Souresrafil • Exiled Iranian journalist • Book: The Iran-Iraq War • Argues that: • Centuries of cultural differences does not cause wars • Iran-Iraq War a direct result of the Iranian Revolution • Iraq feared a Shiite rebellion • Also contends that a clash of personalities had a part to play

23. Daniel Pipes • American historian • A conservative political commentator who is highly critical of Islamic Terrorism • Book: A Border Adrift: Origins of the Conflict. • Argues that: • Many observers over-attributed cultural antagonisms as a cause of the war, due to the surprising nature of the Iranian Revolution • In the sixteenth century, although at war, Ottoman sultan wrote literature in Persian, whilst Shah Ismail wrote in Turkic, highlighting minimal cultural tension • Iraq launched the war to wrest full control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway and gain the prestige of victory • Iraq didn’t launch war over fear of a Shia rebellion. There were no major problems with Shia groups in Iraq