Philosophers X-Ray Poster

Philosophers X-Ray Poster Resources

Directions for X-Ray Poster STEP 1: Make sure each group member knows his or her role: Reader& Researcher Reads aloud or assigns students to read the written information. Gathers more information from outside sources if necessary. Contributes ideas throughout the activity. Facilitator Leads group discussion throughout the activity. Makes sure all group members contribute ideas for the project and all members are working at ALL times. You will delegate tasks if necessary. Contributes ideas throughout the activity. Artist Responsible for deciding the look of the overall project and assigns specific “artistic” duties for each group member. Is responsible for getting and putting away all supplies. Contributes ideas throughout the activity. Writer: Is responsible for completing the template with the help of the other group members. Contributes ideas throughout the activity. STEP 2: Read and discuss the biographical briefing about your group’s assigned philosopher. STEP 3: Complete X-Ray poster template. Make sure all group members contribute ideas. STEP 4: Review the grading rubric and begin creating your X- Ray Poster. All groups members should be working at all times!

Grading Rubric Philosophers X-Ray Poster Assigned Philosopher: _______________________ Group # ___ Period ____ Student Name __________________ Points Received _____ Student Name __________________ Points Received _____ Student Name __________________ Points Received _____ Student Name __________________ Points Received _____ Comments:_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Template for X-Ray Poster Assigned Philosopher: ______________________________ Head-Write at least two ideas or beliefs the person thinks are really important about their ideal form of government. 1. ____________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________ Mouth-write at least two quotes or statements about government or society the person either made or would have made. You can put a direct quote or make up a quote the person would have said during the time they were alive. 1. _____________________________________________________________ 2. _____________________________________________________________ Arm- (upper muscle)- write the persons strengths, things they are good at like speaking, organizing, or writing. Be specific as to what their strengths are. For example, if you say the persons strength is writing tell us what he or she actually wrote. ____________________________________________________________ Heart- Write at least two things (could be ideas or people) the person is passionate about. These things are ideas or people the person really loves. They must relate to politics. 1. ____________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________ Stomach- Write at least one idea or belief about government that some people may view as a weakness. _____________________________________________________________ Hand- Write one thing the person has created or made. This can be an abstract idea like a belief system or movement or a tangent object like a book or famous speech. _____________________________________________________________ Feet- Write where the person is from on one foot and where the person is going or has been on the other. ____________________________________________________________ * Create a symbol on the poster that symbolizes their ideal form of government.

Name: ___________________ Period: ______ Give One, Get One My Thoughts: Of the Enlightenment thinkers, ______________________________ can be regarded as the most important due to _________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ However, __________________________ can be considered the least important because ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ My Classmate’s Ideas: Person 1: ________________________ believed that ___________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ because ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Person 2: ________________________ believed that ___________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ because ____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Person 3: ________________________ believed that ___________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ because ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes was born in England in 1588. He grew up during the English Civil War which was a time of much social unrest. He studied at Oxford University and traveled many times to meet writers, philosophers and scientists to study different forms of government. In 1651 Hobbes became a political philosopher and wrote his most famous work Leviathan. In it, he argued that people are naturally wicked and cannot be trusted to govern. Therefore, Hobbes believed that an absolute monarchy-a government that gives all power to a king or queen-is best. He said that democracy could not work because selfish people would always put their own interests ahead of the nation’s. Although he believed that all people are equal, and that this equality leads to competition and violence. In Leviathan Hobbes wrote that humans are driven by a "perpetual and restless desire [for] power...that ceases only in death.” Because he thought that people act in their own selfish interests if they are left alone, Hobbes did not believe that people should be trusted to make their own decisions. He also felt that nations, like people, are selfishly motivated and in a constant battle for power and wealth. He believed that people should voluntarily give power to a king who would guide the country. The condition of man…is a condition of war of everyone against everyone. Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes Page 2 Governments were created, according to Hobbes, to protect people from their own selfishness and evil. He believed that it is not possible for people to have both freedom and peace, since the state of freedom is a state of unlimited greed and war. Hobbes believed the best ruler would be the great power of a leviathan, or sea monster. He therefore, believed in the rule of a monarchy because he felt a country needs an authority figure to provide direction and leadership. Because the people are only interested in promoting their own interests, Hobbes believed that democracy-allowing citizens to vote for government leaders-would never work. Hobbes reasoned that all people should voluntarily choose to give up their rights to the leader who then would protect people from one another and ensure peace. This idea was not the same as divine right-the belief that monarchs are chosen by God and thus people do not have the right to question their rule. Instead, Hobbes believed that a ruler's absolute power comes not from God, but from people rationally deciding that this is in their best interests. Hobbes considered that the ruler could abuse his or her absolute power and become cruel and unfair. However, this problem could be lessened Hobbes believed by appointing a diverse group of representatives to present the problems of the common people to the ruler. These representative would only have the power to present opinions, since all final decisions would be made by the leader.

John Locke Locke was born in England in 1632 and will eventually leave England because he valued individual freedom of religion. As a student at Oxford University, Locke was influenced by John Owen, Dean of Christ Church College. It was Owen who first introduced Locke to the idea of religious freedom and the idea that people should not be punished for having different views on religion. However, Locke, a Protestant continued to oppose Catholic and atheist( the belief that there is no God) influence in England. He remained entirely tolerant only of different forms of Protestantism. He was deeply influenced by the writing of the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes who proclaimed that all men possess the ability to reason. Locke also believed that people develop reason and can therefore rationally settle their differences by seeking a middle ground and compromising. After college, Locke continued to study and read with a passion. He expressed his views about freedom of religion and the rights of citizens. When in 1682 his ideas were seen by the English government as a challenge to the king's authority, he fled to Holland. Locke returned to England in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution had forced the new British monarch to respect the authority of Parliament and accept a Bill of Rights limiting the king's power. Locke defended this revolution and the limitation of the monarch's power. Throughout his writings, Locke argued that people have the gift of reason, or the ability to think. Locke thought people have the natural ability to govern themselves and to look after the well-being of society. He wrote, "The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which [treats] everyone [equally]. Reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind...that being all equal and independent no one ought to harm another in his life, health, or possessions."

John Locke Page 2 Locke did not believe that God had chosen a group or family of people to rule countries. He rejected this idea of "Divine Right," which many kings and queens used to justify their right to rule. In his own society, Locke supported a monarchy (rule by king or queen) whose power is limited to ensure that the rights of the people are respected. He argued that governments including the limited monarchy under which he lived-should only operate with the consent, or approval, of the people being governed. Locke wrote, "[We have learned from] history we have reason to conclude that all peaceful beginnings of government have been laid in the consent of the people." Governments are formed, according t o Locke, to protect the right to life, the right to freedom, and the right to property. These rights are absolute, belonging to all people. Locke believed that ideally government power should be divided equally into three branches of government so that politicians do not face the "temptation...to grasp at [absolute] power." If any government abuses the rights of the people instead of protecting them, the people have the right to rebel and form a new government. H e wrote, "Whenever[ the preservation o f life, liberty, and property for which power is given to rulers by a commonwealth ] is manifestly neglected or opposed, the trust must necessarily be forfeited and then [returned] into the hands of those that gave it, who may place it anew where they think best for their safety and security.“ Locke's idea that only the consent of the governed gives validity to a government Inspired the founders o f new democracy such as the writers of the United States Constitution. John Locke believed that the control of any person against her or his will was unacceptable, whether in the form of an unfair government or in slavery. Locke wrote, "The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but only have the law of nature for his rule." He extended his ideas about freedom to a belief in civil liberties. Locke felt that women had the ability to reason, which entitled them to an equal voice, at least in the home-an unpopular idea during this time in history. Despite fearing that he might be censored he wrote, "It may not be [wrong] to offer new...[ideas] when the old [traditions] are apt to lead men into mistakes, as this [idea] of [fatherly] power probably had done, which seems so [eager] to place the power of parents over their children wholly in the father, as if the mother had no share in it; whereas if we consult reason or [the Bible], we shall find she has an equal title."

Baron de Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat was born in Bordeaux, France in 1689. Despite his family's wealth, de Secondat was placed in the care of a poor family during his childhood. He later went to college and studied science and history, eventually becoming a lawyer in the local government. De Secondat's father died in 1713, and de Secondat was placed under the care of his uncle, Baron de Montesquieu. The Baron died in 1716 and left de Secondat is fortune, his office as president of the Bordeaux Parliament, and his title of Baron de Montesquieu. Later, the new Baron de Montesquieu became a member of the Bordeaux and French Academies of Science and studied the customs and governments of the countries of Europe. He gained fame in 1721 with his Persian Letters, which criticized the life-style and liberties of the wealthy. French, as well as the church. However, Montesquieu's On the Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748, was his most famous book. It outlined his ideas on how government would best work. Montesquieu was very concerned about the relationship between religion and violence. He writes in the Persian Letters, "I can assure you that no kingdom has ever had as many evil wars as the kingdom of Christ." A character in the Persian Letters states strongly, "in order to love and conform to one's religion it is not necessary to hate and persecute those who do not conform to it." Montesquieu argued not for atheism (belief that there is no God), but rather a secular (worldly) morality that is tolerant of many different religions. Despite Montesquieu's belief in religious tolerance, he did not feel that all people were equal. Montesquieu approved of slavery. He also thought that women were weaker than men and that they had to obey the commands of their husbands. At the same time, he felt that the gentler nature of women could make them valuable decision makers and participants in government. "It is against reason and against nature for women to be mistresses in the house...but not for them to govern an empire. In the first case, their weak state does not permit them to be preeminent (above others); in the second, their very weakness gives them more gentleness and moderation, which, rather than the harsh and ferocious virtues, can make for good government."

Baron de Montesquieu Page 2 According to Montesquieu, there are three forms of government: monarchy (rule by a king or queen), aristocracy (rule by the noble or wealthy class), and republicanism (rule by Elected leaders). Montesquieu was opposed to absolute monarchy (where no other persons or institutions have any control over the monarch) and believed that a monarchy with limited powers makes countries the most stable and secure. People's role in government, Montesquieu believed, should be based on political virtue (moral goodness) and equality. Political virtue means that citizens voluntarily put their public interests above their individual interests. States should be kept small to make it easier for people to play a role in Government. Montesquieu believed that the success of a government depends upon maintaining the right balance of power between different branches. Montesquieu argued that the best government is one in which power is balanced among Three separate branches of government with equal but different powers. He thought that England in the eighteenth century provided the best model of government because it divided power among three parts: the king, who enforced laws; the Parliament, which created laws; and a court system, which interpreted laws. Montesquieu called this idea of divided Government rule the "separation of powers." He believed in the separation of powers Because he felt that if all political power is handed over to one branch, greed and corruption inevitably result. He wrote, "When the [lawmaking] and law-enforcing powers are united in the same person...there can be no liberty." According to Montesquieu, each branch of government checks (limits) the power of the other two. This way, no branch of government can threaten the freedom of the people, and tyranny can be avoided. His ideas about the separation of powers became the basis for the United States Constitution.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva in 1712. By the time he was 13 his mother had died and his father, a failed watchmaker, had been forced to leave Geneva to avoid being imprisoned for fighting a duel. Virtually abandoned, Rousseau was forced to serve as an apprentice to an engraver who brutally mistreated him. Partly to free himself from bitter servitude and partly to embark on an adventure, Rousseau fled the Swiss capital at the age of 16 and wandered about Europe In his travels, Rousseau befriended several wealthy people whom took him into their homes and provided the time and money for him to receive an excellent education in music and philosophy. At the age of 30, he moved to Paris and quickly established himself as one of the most outstanding philosophers of the eighteenth century. He died in 1778. Unlike most other philosophers of his time, Rousseau believed that people are born good, independent, and compassionate. If left to their own devices in a state of nature (a society with no government or laws, like on a deserted island) people would naturally live happily and peacefully. In fact, such a society would be free and ideal, much more satisfying than the inequalities brought by modem society. Influenced by the peace and stability he saw in simple, traditional Swiss villages, Rousseau believed the luxury, corruption, and greed of modem nations harm the individual, giving too few people too much power over many others. In modem countries, for example, political control ends up in huge capital cities far away from most of the people. Further, he believed that society's institutions, like government, schools, the arts, and the media, corrupt naturally good individuals. Rousseau thought that modem civilization, for all its progress, has made humans neither happier nor more virtuous (morally good).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Page 2 Rousseau's Swiss background had an enormous influence on the type of government he advocated (supported). Unlike its surrounding autocratic (government with unlimited power by one person over others) neighbors, Switzerland for centuries had been divided into small districts. Decisions were made locally, not far away in a royal palace in the capital city. The manner in which people in these traditional villages gathered regularly to make decisions was an example of democracy (government by the people), whereby a simple majority vote by the adult male citizens enacted a law. Each adult male voted on laws himself, without anybody representing him. This form of direct democracy also flourished briefly in ancient Athens and Rome. Although direct democracy was extremely rare outside of Switzerland at that time, Rousseau believed it was the ideal way for people to make decisions. He referred to how nondemocratic governments in Europe had corrupted modem people when he wrote in his book The Social Contract, "Man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains." He believed that even representative democracy (where people vote for other people to represent them}-as in England and the United States-is corrupt. "Any law which the people has not ratified in person is void; it is not law at all. The English people believes itself to be free; it is gravely mistaken; it is free only during the election of Members of Parliament; as soon as the Members are elected, the people are enslaved.“ Many philosophers during Rousseau's time believed that people must choose to enter into a "contract" (agreement) with society and be ruled by a monarch, or stay outside of society and be free. They believed that only the rule of a monarch would ensure that society is stable and secure. Freedom, for many philosophers, meant chaos or anarchy (no government). In contrast, Rousseau believed that people can be both ruled and free if they rule themselves. He thought that governments should exist on the basis of a democratic "social contract," where people have direct say in the way their society is governed. Only through direct democracy, Rousseau felt, can people's freedom be preserved. While Rousseau believed that all adult males should help make the laws in assemblies, those who administer or carry out the laws (like presidents and prime ministers) can be elected as representatives of the people.

Mary Wollstonecraft Mary Wollstonecraft, born in London in 1759, was one of the first women during the late Eighteenth century to actively call for the rights of women. Wollstonecraft, the daughter of a silk weaver, left home at the age of 19, angry that all her family's small resources went to the oldest son (she was the oldest daughter). At that time, laws supported men's control of the family's money. For instance, even if a woman entered a marriage with money inherited from her family, it was immediately turned over to her husband. If she worked, all her wages were given to her husband. Wollstonecraft did not want to get married and be controlled by her Husband like many other women she knew. Instead she established her own small school. later, she left to work as a servant to a wealthy widow, then as a seamstress, school teacher, and finally Governess to the Viscount and Lady Kingsborough in Ireland. During the French Revolution in 1789, she lived in France, where she worked and wrote about the rights of women and the French Revolution. She was not married when her first daughter, Fanny, was born in 1794. The next year, Wollstonecraft tried to commit suicide. Eventually she married the famous writer William Godwin after she became pregnant with his child. Godwin, like Wollstonecraft, did not believe in the institution of marriage. He wrote that only his love for her and nothing else "could have induced me to submit to an institution which I wish to see abolished.“ Wollstonecraft died soon after giving birth to their daughter, Mary Shelley. Even after her marriage, society still condemned her for her unconventional behavior, and after her death she was renounced (spoken badly of) as a prostitute and a monster. Women led a restricted life during Wollstonecraft's time. Men generally thought that women had an inferior intellect and considered them weak by nature. Wollstonecraft attributed human nature and behavior to environment, as opposed to heredity. She believed that all people are equal and that every person possesses the natural right to determine his or her own destiny. Human nature can be perfected if education is improved and oppression ended. Oppressive systems-which include the rule of masters over slaves as well as the rule of husbands over wives-corrupt both the oppressed and the oppressor. Thus, all of society would benefit from equality and the end of male domination over women.

Mary Wollstonecraft Page 2 "I am about to display 'the mind of a woman, who has thinking powers,'“ Wollstonecraft wrote in the introduction of her book, A Vindication of the Rights of Women. During this period in England, women had virtually no rights of political participation. They could not receive an education, vote, or run for public office. In addition, women were not allowed access to the court system-they could not file a complaint, appear in court, or hire a lawyer. Women were not allowed to hold jobs in government, medicine, or a number of other occupations. Inequality between men and women is not the result of natural differences, Wollstonecraft believed, but rather the result of the powerful tyranny (cruel and unjust rule) of men. Women do not have the opportunity to prove their equality because men have keep them in inferior positions. "Let men prove [that women are weaker]," she wrote. If men truly want to confirm women's inferiority, they must first treat women as equals, she believed. While most of her writing centered on issues of equality between women and men in the home as a way to improve society, Wollstonecraft was also concerned with women's role in civic life. She believed that humanity's progress is held back by the fact that women are not allowed to fully contribute to society. She demanded that women, whether married or single, must participate in civic and political life, and that they be able to study professions such as medicine, politics, and business. Wollstonecraft compared the unjust rule of kings over their subjects to the unjust rule of husbands over their wives. She was opposed to monarchy (rule by a king or queen), as well as to all patriarchal (dominated by men) systems. Power corrupts, Wollstonecraft believed, and therefore is the enemy of society. She referred to the reign of monarchs and the color symbolizing royalty as the "pestiferous (harmful) purple,“ and wanted to return to a state where every person was her or his own master. "Society will not be whole," Wollstonecraft wrote in Vindication of the Rights of Women, "until the last king is strangled with the guts of the last priest."

James Madison James Madison was born in 1751 and was raised in Orange County, Virginia, and attended Princeton University (then called the College of New Jersey). A student of history and government, well-read in law, he participated in the framing of the Virginia Constitution in 1776, served in the Continental Congress, and was a leader in the Virginia Assembly. About a third of The Federalist papers were written by him to talk about how the federal government should be arranged. The documents led to the Constitution in which Madison became the chief recorder of information and therefore known as, the “Father of the Constitution”. Madison argued strongly for a strong central government that would unify the country. In 1776, Madison was a delegate to the convention in Williamsburg that declared Virginia's independence, that constructed Virginia's new independent government and that instructed Virginia's delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence. Madison was elected to Virginia's House of Delegates in October 1776, but lost his seat in 1777, largely because he refused to supply the traditional barrel of free liquor for the voters on Election Day. In 1778, the House of Delegates elected Madison to the council of state reporting to the Virginia Governor, Patrick Henry. In 1779, Madison became acquainted with his lifelong friend and collaborator, Thomas Jefferson who was elected Governor of Virginia in that year. Madison's political philosophy supported the inalienable rights of the individual especially with respect to religion. By the spring of 1786, Madison was well aware that the Confederation was self-destructing because of the absence of any central authority under the Articles of Confederation. He called for a new Constitution with a Federal system of government where the power would be divided between the Federal government and the states. He believed a strong federal government was necessary to promote the general welfare. “Nothing is more certain than the indispensable necessity of government, and it is equally undeniable, that whenever and however it is instituted, the people must cede to it some of their natural rights in order to vest it with requisite powers.” (Federalist No. 2)

James Madisonpage 2 Madison immediately set the tone for the Constitutional convention by introducing a document that he wrote called The Virginia Plan. The Virginia Plan was a radical departure from the stated intentions of the convention. It called for a strong central government "consisting of a supreme Legislature, Executive, & Judiciary." It provided for a national legislature consisting of two houses: one elected directly by the people, the other appointed by the first from a body of nominees submitted by state legislatures. Representation in these bodies would be based on the population of the states. It provided for an Executive to be elected by this national legislature. It also defined a national judiciary and a "Council of Revision" charged with reviewing the constitutionality of legislation. Madison’s thought on government was “to suppose that any form of government will secure liberty or happiness without any virtue in the people, is a chimerical idea.” James Madison was in power during an important time. Even though America did not end the War of 1812 as the ultimate "victor," it did end with a stronger and independent economy. As the author of the Constitution, decisions made during his time as president were based on his interpretation of the document. He was well respected in his time for not only authoring the document but also administering it. Even though he would later write the Virginia Resolutions which were hailed by anti-federalists, his Constitution created a strong federal government. Once the Convention ended, he along with John Jay and Alexander Hamilton wrote the Federalists Paper, essays that were intended to sway public opinion to ratifying the new Constitution.

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, in Shadwell, Virginia. He was a draftsman of the U.S. Declaration of Independence; the nation's first secretary of state (1789-94); second vice president (1797-1801); and, as the third president (1801-09), the statesman responsible for the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson died in bed at Monticello (located near Charlottesville, Virginia) on July 4, 1826. Jefferson was born into a very prominent family. His mother, Jane Randolph Jefferson, was a member of the proud Randolph clan, a family claiming descent from English and Scottish royalty. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a successful farmer as well as a skilled surveyor and cartographer who produced the first accurate map of the Province of Virginia. After three years attending the College of William and Mary, Jefferson decided to read law under one of the pre-eminent lawyers of the American colonies. There were no law schools at this time; instead aspiring attorneys "read law" under the supervision of an established lawyer before being examined by the bar. By the time Jefferson won admission to the Virginia bar in 1767, he was already one of the most educated lawyers in America. From 1767-'74, Jefferson practiced law in Virginia with great success, trying many cases and winning most of them. During these years, he also met and fell in love with Martha Wayles Skelton, a recent widow and one of the wealthiest women in Virginia. The pair married on January 1, 1772. The beginning of Jefferson's professional life coincided with great changes in Great Britain's American colonies. The conclusion of the French and Indian War in 1763 left Great Britain in dire financial straits; to raise revenue, the Crown levied a host of new taxes on its American colonies. The colonists were outraged, giving rise to the American revolutionary slogan, "No taxation without representation.“ Thomas Jefferson was one of the earliest and most fervent supporters of the cause of American independence from Great Britain. He was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1768 and joined its radical bloc, led by Patrick Henry and George Washington. In 1774, Jefferson wrote his first major political work, "A Summary View of the Rights of British America," which established his reputation as one of the most outspoken supporter of the American cause. A year later, in 1775, Jefferson attended the Second Continental Congress, which created the Continental Army and appointed Jefferson's fellow Virginian, George Washington, as its commander-in-chief. However, the Congress's most significant work fell to Jefferson himself.

Thomas Jeffersonpage 2 In June 1776, the Congress appointed a five-man committee to draft a Declaration of Independence. The committee then chose Jefferson to author the declaration's first draft. Over the next 17 days, Jefferson drafted one of the most beautiful and powerful testaments to liberty and equality in world history. The document opened with a preamble stating the natural rights of all human beings and then continued on to describe specific grievances against King George III that absolved the American colonies of any allegiance to the British Crown. Although the Declaration of Independence adopted on July 4, 1776 had undergone a series of revisions from Jefferson's original draft, its immortal words remain essentially his own: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights; that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.“ Although most of the colonists were happy that they were successful in winning their independence, partisan battles emerged to divide the new American government during Washington's presidency. On one side, the Federalists, led by Hamilton, advocated for a strong national government, broad interpretation of the constitution and neutrality in European affairs. On the other side, the Republicans (Anti-Federalists), led by Jefferson, promoted the supremacy of state governments, a strict constructionist interpretation of the constitution, support for the Bill of Rights to be added to the Constitution and support for the French revolution. His ideal form of government would be a republic where most of the powers rested with individual states and promotion of individual rights. Thomas Jefferson became President of the United States in 1800. While president, Jefferson's principles were tested in many ways. For example, in order to purchase the Louisiana Territory from France he was willing to expand his narrow interpretation of the Constitution. But Jefferson stood firm in ending the importation of slaves and maintaining his view of the separation of church and state. In the end, Jefferson completed two full and eventful terms as president. He also paved the way for James Madison and James Monroe, his political protégés, to succeed him in the presidency.

Simón Bolívar Simón Bolívar was a South American soldier who participated in several revolutions against the Spanish empire. He came from a very wealth family and was sent to Spain for his education. While in Spain he began to participate in European politics. After France invaded Spain in 1808, he became involved in the resistance movement and played a key role in the Spanish American fight for independence. In 1825, the "Republic of Bolivia," was created after the inspirational leader, hailed by many as El Libertador (The Liberator). In the early 1800’s great changes were taking place in Europe. Napoleon invaded Spain and deposed the Spanish king. In his place he set up Joseph Bonaparte as king. The colonies in South America refused to recognize this new king and they set up what was known as a, “junta,” or, “governing council,” to rule the colonies. Not only did this junta refused to recognize the power of Joseph, but it also refused to take orders from the representatives of the real Spanish king. This junta gave Bolivar the rank of lieutenant colonel and he was part of the group that took Caracas from the Spanish and declared the First Republic of Venezuela on July 5, 1811. It was the first colony anywhere in the Spanish empire to attempt to break free. The people of Venezuela were not united though and the republic only lasted one year due to counter-rebellion. 1813 Bolivar set himself up as dictator but the country was still divided and he could not hold onto his power for long. A group of royalists from the plains known as llaneros or plainsmen and led by a man named José Tomás Boves defeated Bolivar after a series of battles and he was again forced to flee.

Simón BolívarPage 2 This time he fled to Jamaica and it was here that he wrote his famous “Letter From Jamaica” in which he stated, “A people that love freedom will in the end be free." In his letter he outlined his ideas about government: “Among the popular and representative systems of government I do not approve of the federal system: it is too perfect; and it requires virtues and political talents much superior to our own.” He began supporting a political system in which the nobility played a strong role, led by a president for life. He believed a government should have strict consequences against crime. A man of great charm who could size up the people he met instantly, Bolivar set out to persuade the world to back his vision yet again. He was said to speak so eloquently on the spur of the moment that his speeches could be printed without editing. He answered every letter written to him, sometimes dictating to three secretaries at once. In 1819, after years of conflict, the underground legislature of Venezuela assembled and declared its country and New Granada united as the Republic of Colombia (which included what is now Ecuador). Bolivar was made president and military dictator. Like many in the aristocracy, Bolivar had slaves, and in the spirit and excitement of the independence movement he was the first to set them free. He was later to call for the abolition of slavery across the entire Western Hemisphere. Bolívar eventually succeeded in uniting much of South America in a federation free from Spanish control, but the government was very weak. Despite his desire to create a union of states similar to that which created the United States of America, Bolívar faced opposition from several groups within the country. As a temporary measure, Bolívar declared himself dictator in 1828. He resigned this post in 1830 and made plans to sail for exile in Europe. On December 17, 1830, however, Simón Bolívar died in Santa Marta, Colombia, after a battle with tuberculosis.

Plato Plato was born into a wealthy family in Athens, Greece in 428 B.C. When he was 23, he witnessed Sparta's defeat of Athens and the end of the Athenian empire. After seeing a great deal of violence, he decided that all wars are fought over money. During his youth, Plato became a close friend of Socrates, a Greek philosopher, and as influenced by Socrates search for the meaning of life. Plato planned to become a politician but decided against it when the Athenian democracy put Socrates on trial and executed him. Thereafter, Plato focused his energy on the search for how society could be structured so as to bring out the best in people. Plato was very interested in promoting the study of mathematics, Philosophy, and government. In 387 B.C. he founded the Academy in Athens, the first university where Aristotle, another Famous Greek philosopher, became one of his students. Plato died in 347 B.C. In his book The Republic, Plato discussed his ideal form of government, in which a society could be constructed to bring out the best behavior of its citizens. Plato believed that different people have different strengths and weaknesses and that the ideal society i s one in which each member understands and performs her or his proper role. Talent-not wealth, gender, or noble birthright-determines a citizen's proper role. The strong and courageous should become soldiers, those skilled with their hands should become artisans and laborers, and those with wisdom and virtue should become leaders. Plato believed this assigning of appropriate roles encourages citizens to lead a good and just life and to serve the society as a whole. Not surprisingly, he believed that education is absolutely essential or good government since it is important to teach people how to be good citizens. As president of the first university, he hoped to instill (put in) the kind of values in future leaders that would influence them to seek wisdom and justice rather than wealth and power.

Plato After witnessing his friend Socrates be condemned to death by a democratic government, Plato decided that democracy (rule by the people) is "tragically inadequate "as a form of government. He criticized democracy as "mob rule" where the ignorant and uneducated majority govern, rather than the wise and virtuous. But he also recognized the dangers of a state ruled by autocracy (unlimited power by one person over others), where a single ruler is tempted to make decisions based on his or her own greed and self-interest rather than on the good of the people. Tyranny (cruel and unjust government) results, he thought, when the three most powerful drives--ambition, fear, and greed-become stronger motivations than reason and humanity. In order for the state to maintain its focus on caring for the people, the rulers must not be allowed to pursue personal ambitions for power and wealth. Plato wrote that the evil of existing governments is present because power and wisdom are not united in the same person. Evil governments will only end, Plato thought, when philosophers are kings. By "philosopher kings" Plato meant that the smartest-the lover of knowledge, wisdom, and virtue-should govern. In The Republic, he wrote, "unless philosophers are kings, or those now called kings and chiefs genuinely philosophize ...there is no rest from ills for cities...nor, for human kind.“ Plato rejected both democracy and autocracy in favor of creating his own ideal society, which he describes in The Republic. In Plato's republic, the state would be unified and self sufficient. Each person would be put to the best use for which nature prepared him or her. All children would be the property of the government and would owe primary loyalty to the state rather than to their mother and father. In this way, power would never be hereditary; and each person would be educated and judged suitable for a certain role based only on her or his own skills and merits. There would be a careful division of labor so that the rulers would never also be warriors, and vice versa. Philosopher-kings would make the laws, and those skilled in Administration would enforce them. The philosopher-kings would be chosen for their intelligence. All rulers would live communally; they would receive no pay and would not be allowed to own property-this rule would prevent them from making decisions based on greed and thus guard against the possibility of tyranny. Another group in Plato's republic was the populace (people). Although the state was supposed to exist based on their consent and to act in their interests Plato assigned to the populace the primary duty of obedience.

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