ART AND HISTORY OF EGYPT

1. ART AND HISTORY OF EGYPT BY: SUKRIT BHATTACHARYYA XI-B, ROLL No.-11242

2. The Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt, "The Gift of the Nile," and along that life-giving river, the ancient Egyptians built their amazing civilization, one they ruled for three millennia. Conquered by the Persians in 341 B.C., the Greeks and Romans followed, but it was the Arabs that introduced Islam and Arabic, and subsequently dominated this ancient land for many centuries. In 1517 the Ottoman Turks invaded, and took control. Besides a brief French incursion (1798-1806), the Ottomans remained until the mid-19th century. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt developed into a vital transportation hub, but fell heavily into debt. To protect its investments, Britain seized control in 1882. Egypt then became a British protectorate in 1914, achieving partial independence in 1922, and full sovereignty in 1945. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and on-going dependence on the Nile River, all continue to overtax resources. The Egyptian government still struggles through economic reforms in the 21st century, and the pressing need for massive investment in communications and infrastructure. Regardless, Egypt remains one of the favorite destinations of archaeologists, historians and tourists from around the world.

3. GEOGRAPHY

4. FEATURES AT A GLANCE Official Name: Arab Republic of Egypt, Population: 81,731,000, Capital City: Cairo (13.2 million), Largest Cities: Cairo, Alexandria, El Qahira Currency: Egyptian Pound, Latitude/Longitude: 30º06 N, 31º25 E Languages: Arabic (official), English, French National Day: 23 July; Revolution Day , Religions: Muslim (94%)

5. At 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi), Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country (after Mauritania). It is comparable in size to Tanzania, twice the size of France, four times the size of the United Kingdom, and is more than half the size of the US state of Alaska. Situated in the Northeastern corner of Africa, Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea. Egypt enjoys a unique, strategic location at the crossroads between Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Throughout its history, Egypt has been a country where various cultures met and interacted. Egypt's total area is over one million square kilometers, yet only a narrow strip in the Nile Valley and the Delta is cultivated land. The Nile, which traverses over 1,000 miles within Egypt, from Wadi Halfa in the South to the Mediterranean in the north, divides the country into four broad regions; the Western Desert which occupies almost two-thirds of the total area, the Eastern Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Nile Valley and Delta, which is the most densely populated region of the country. The vast majority of the remaining land is made up of sparsely inhabited, arid desert. Extensive land reclamation efforts since 1947 have aimed at increasing the area of cultivable land. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is the largest city in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East. It is also the industrial and commercial center of Egypt. Other major towns include Alexandria, Egypt's chief port, Port Said, Luxor, Aswan, Zagazig and Assiut .

7. HISTORY

8. Egypt is home to one of the richest and most ancient civilizations in the world extending to several millennia BC it was the Pharaoh MENES who united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, inaugurating what came to be known as the Ancient Empire (3200-2270 BC). RAMSES II (1279 to 1212 BC) is another Pharaoh who deserves mentioning. He is known for his prodigious buildings, rising temples, statues and other monuments throughout Egypt. Among his major achievements was the signing of the first Peace Treaty to be recorded in history, concluded between Egypt and the Hitites.Another great Pharaoh is Akhnaton(1379 to 1362 BC). He was originally called AMENOPHIS IV, but changed his name in honor of Aten, the Sun God. Akhnaton is considered to have heralded the concept of monotheism in the history of religion.  Alexander the Great arrived to Egypt in the late autumn of 332 BC. He founded Alexandria in 331 BC as a gateway to his motherland, Greece. Alexandria became a major center for trading. Its Library became a cultural center that made an important contribution to civilization. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt until 30 BC, Romans until 642 AD when the Arabs arrived. The Arabs were followed by the Mamlukes, who were magnificent warriors and who ruled Egypt from 1250-1517 AD when their reign ended with the Ottoman conquest of Egypt under Sultan Selim. The arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte to Egypt on July 2nd 1798, initiated a new phase in Egypt's history. August 12th 1882, British troops landed at Alexandria marking the beginning of British occupation which lasted for 74 years. On the 28th of February 1922, Britain unilaterally declared the termination of the British Protectorate and declared Egypt an independent state. In 1923, the first Constitution was promulgated and Sa'ad Zaghloul formed the first representative GOVERNMENT OF EGYPT.

9. FAME Egypt is important for papyrus in two respects. First, papyrus plants grew almost exclusively in the region of the Nile delta. Secondly, the dry climate of Egypt made it possible for papyri to endure, in many cases, for over 2 millennia. As the ancient Egyptians moved from prehistory to history by developing a written language, they discovered the need for a medium other than stone to transcribe upon. They found this in their papyrus plant, a triangular reed which symbolized ancient lower Egypt. It was light, strong, thin, durable and easy to carry, and for thousands of years, there was nothing better for the purpose of writing. The earliest extant documented papyrus comes from Egypt's 1st Dynasty, but we believe it may have been used as early as 4,000 BC. It's use continued until about the 11th century AD. Besides its use for producing a medium for writing purposes, papyrus was also used for mattresses on beds, for building chairs, tables, and other furniture as well as for mats, baskets, boxes, sandals, utensils, rope and boats. Furthermore, the papyrus root was a source of food, medicine and perfume. A PAPYRUS GROOVE

10. In Egypt, papyrus was recycled in the form of mummy cartonnage. In the mummification process, the ancient Egyptians first prepared the corpses and wrapped them in linen. Then they covered the deceased with pieces of cartonnage covered with plaster and painted in bright colors. This cartonnage, at least in certain periods of Egyptian history, consisted of several layers of papyrus usually discarded by administrative offices. Papyrus making was not revived until around 1969. An Egyptian scientist named Dr. Hassan Ragab reintroduced the papyrus plant to Egypt from the Sudan and started a papyrus plantation near Cairo on Jacob Island. He also had to research the method of production. Unfortunately, the ancient Egyptians left little evidence about the manufacturing process. There are no extant texts or wall paintings and archaeologists have failed to uncover any manufacturing centers. Most of our knowledge about the actual manufacturing process is derived from its description in Pliny the elder's Natural History and modern experimentation. Dr. Ragab finally figured out how it was done, and now papyrus making is back in Egypt after a very long absence. Text scribbled on a PAPYRUS SHEET

11. Egyptians used a system that combined phonograms, that is, sound-signs that spelt out the word in an alphabetic system, and ideograms, sense-signs that were added to the spelled-out word to depict its meaning, and this language had its own syntax, grammar and vocabularyne words Hieroglyphs were primarily used for religious and formal secular purposes. Early in the historical period, a simpler cursive script was developed, in which each character was a simplified version of a hieroglyph. This script is today known as hieratic and was widely used until about 800 BCE for business, literary and religious texts. By about 700 BCE another script today called demotic had evolved from the hieratic. Business, legal and literary inscriptions were written in demotic. The belief that the hieroglyphs were somehow symbolic and imbued with secret meaning, rather than simply being a popular script, had become well-rooted before Diodorus Siculus visited Egypt in the first centiry BCE. He wrote: "their writing does not express the intended concept by means of syllables joined to one another, but by means of the significance of the objects which have been copied, and by its figurative meaning which has been impressed upon the memory by practice."

12. A pyramid is a building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point. The base of pyramids are usually quadrilateral or trilateral (but generally may be of any polygon shape), meaning that a pyramid usually has three or four sides. • A pyramid's design, with the majority of the weight closer to the ground, means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above. This allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures. For thousands of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids: first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the only remaining Wonder of the World. • The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of many different shapes and sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom. • There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza, A town located near Cairo in northern Egypt. The most well-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'. • Egyptologists have developed many theories about why the tombs of the early pharaohs were built in the pyramid shape. Here are three different ideas: • The pyramid represented the first land to appear at the beginning of time- a hill called 'Ben-Ben'. • The pyramid had sloping sides so that the dead pharaoh could climb to the sky and live forever. • The pyramid represented the rays of the sun.

13. STEP PYRAMID In the third dynasty, a pharaoh named Djoser had a large stone pyramid built at Saqqara. This pyramid has many layers and looks like several stacked on top of each other. The Entrance colonnade in the Djoser Step Pyramid Complex Overall view of Djoser Step Pyramid Pyramid text inside the Pyramid

14. BENT PYRAMID The bent pyramid at Dahshur (An area on the west bank of the Nile where the ancient Egyptians built pyramids. It is located south of modern Cairo) shows us that the ancient Egyptians experimented a lot with the slope of the pyramids. In the middle of construction the builders must have decided that the slope of the building was too steep to continue. Thus, the top half of the pyramid has a different slope. The angle at Maidoun was 52 degrees as is the base of the Bent Pyramid. At the bend, the angle is changed to 43.5 degrees up to the peak. The slope that was used for the upper section of this pyramid was later used by the builders of the Giza pyramids. The Bent Pyramid of Snofru in Dahshur Descending passageway of the Bent Pyramid

15. THE GIZA PYRAMIDS In the fourth dynasty, three large stone pyramids were built at Giza. The design of these pyramids was based on the pyramids that had been built before. These are the largest and sturdiest pyramids that were ever built in ancient Egypt. The first and largest pyramid was built for the pharaoh Khufu (also known as Cheops). The second largest pyramid was built for Khufu's son, Khafra (also known as Chephren). In addition to the usual parts of a pyramid complex, Khafra's pyramid is guarded by a huge sphinx. (An imaginary animal with the body of a lion and the head of a person or sometimes a falcon). Finally, the third largest pyramid was built for the pharaoh Menkaure (also known as Mycerinus). The ancient Egyptians continued to build pyramids for their pharaohs after the Giza pyramids were built. However they were never as big or well-designed as the Giza pyramids. Overall view of Giza Pyramids Sphinx at Giza Pyramid

16. GREAT SPHINX The Great Sphinx is a large human-headed lion that was carved from a mound of natural rock. It is located in Giza where it guards the front of Khafra's pyramid. Legends have been told for many years about the Great Sphinx. These stories tell about the powers and mysteries of this sphinx. Some people even believe that there are hidden passageways or rooms underneath the Great Sphinx, but nothing has been found yet. The story reads that one day, a young prince fell asleep next to the Great Sphinx. He had been hunting all day, and was very tired. He dreamt that the Great Sphinx promised that he would become the ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt if he cleared away the sand covering its body (the Great Sphinx was covered up to its neck). This stele was put up by the pharaoh Thutmosis IV who lived around 1400 B.C. Main transport to reach Giza Pyramid The Great Sphinx at Giza

17. MUMMIFICATION

18. The earliest ancient Egyptians buried their dead in small pits in the desert. The heat and dryness of the sand dehydrated the bodies quickly, creating lifelike and natural 'mummies'. Later, the ancient Egyptians began burying their dead in coffins to protect them from wild animals in the desert. However, they realised that bodies placed in coffins decayed when they were not exposed to the hot, dry sand of the desert. Over many centuries, the ancient Egyptians developed a method of preserving bodies so they would remain lifelike. The process included embalming the bodies and wrapping them in strips of linen. Today we call this process mummification. An important man has died and his body needs to be prepared for burial. The process of mummification has two stages. First, the embalming of the body. Then, the wrapping and burial of the body KING-TUT-MUMMY KING-TUT-COFFIN

19. Embalming the body First, his body is taken to the tent known as 'ibu' or the 'place of purification'. There the embalmers wash his body with good-smelling palm wine and rinse it with water from the Nile. One of the embalmer's men makes a cut in the left side of the body and removes many of the internal organs. It is important to remove these because they are the first part of the body to decompose. The liver, lungs, stomach and intestines are washed and packed in natron which will dry them out. The heart is not taken out of the body because it is the centre of intelligence and feeling and the man will need it in the afterlife. A long hook is used to smash the brain and pull it out through the nose.

20. The body is now covered and stuffed with natron which will dry it out. All of the fluids, and rags from the embalming process will be saved and buried along with the body. After forty days the body is washed again with water from the Nile. Then it is covered with oils to help the skin stay elastic. The dehydrated internal organs are wrapped in linen and returned to the body. The body is stuffed with dry materials such as sawdust, leaves and linen so that it looks lifelike. Finally the body is covered again with good-smelling oils. It is now ready to be wrapped in linen.

21. The body has been cleaned, dried and rubbed with good-smelling oils. Now it is ready to be wrapped in linen. First the head and neck are wrapped with strips of fine linen. Then the fingers and the toes are individually wrapped. The arms and legs are wrapped separately. Between the layers of wrapping, the embalmers place amulets (A small trinket or charm that was meant to protect the owner from evil spells or actions.) to protect the body in its journey through the underworld. A priest reads spells out loud while the mummy is being wrapped. These spells will help ward off evil spirits and help the deceased make the journey to the afterlife. The arms and legs are tied together. A papyrus scroll with spells from the Book of the Dead is placed between the wrapped hands. More linen strips are wrapped around the body. At every layer, the bandages are painted with liquid resin that helps to glue the bandages together. A cloth is wrapped around the body and a picture of the god Osiris is painted on its surface. Finally, a large cloth is wrapped around the entire mummy. It is attached with strips of linen that run from the top to the bottom of the mummy, and around its middle. A board of painted wood is placed on top of the mummy before the mummy is lowered into its coffin. The first coffin is then put inside a second coffin.

23. Funeral proceedings The funeral is held for the deceased and his family mourns his death. A ritual (A religious ceremony) called the 'Opening of the Mouth' is performed, allowing the deceased to eat and drink again. Finally, the body and its coffins are placed inside a large stone sarcophagus (A large stone or wood box in which coffins) were placed for burial. in the tomb. Furniture, clothing, valuable objects, food and drink are arranged in the tomb for the deceased. Now his body is ready for its journey through the underworld. There his heart will be judged by his good deeds on earth. If his heart is found to be pure he will be sent to live for all eternity in the beautiful 'Field of Reeds'

24. Tutankhamun (bc. 1346-1328 bc)

25. The most famous Egyptian pharaoh today is, without doubt, Tutankhamen. However, before the spectacular discovery of his almost intact tomb in the Valley of the Kings in November 1922, Tutankhamen was only a little known figure of the late 18th Dynasty. Tutankhamun was probably born at Akhetaten which was the capital city of Egypt. He was born in about the year 1346 BC He became pharaoh at the tender age of nine in 1337 BC and reigned during the 18th Dynasty when the Egyptian Empire was at its height. He reigned from about 1337 to 1328 BC. Tutankhamun reigned for around 9 years, making him about 18 when he died. His tomb was discovered by a team of British archaeologists in 1922, nearly 3000 years after his death The reason that Tutankhamun is so well known today is that his tomb, containing fabulous treasures, was found early this century (1922) by British archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon Several finds made in the Valley of the Kings over the years led Howard Carter to believe that the king was still somewhere in the Valley. Carter believed he found clues to Tutankhamun in the discoveries made by Theodore Davis. Davis had found a cup and other fragments bearing the name of Tutankhamen and his queen. He was buried in a hastily prepared tomb in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes, the traditional burial place of his predecessors. The person responsible for his burial, and shown on one of the walls in Tutankhamun's tomb, was Ay who succeeded him on the Egyptian throne.

26. The Valley of the Kings in Upper Egypt contains many of the tombs of pharaohs from the New Kingdom, including Tutankhamun and Ramesses the Great. The small tomb contained hundreds of objects (now housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo), many richly decorated and covered in gold, that would be needed by the king in his afterlife. Over 3,000 treasures were placed in the tomb to help Tutankhamen in his afterlife, and the walls of the burial chamber were painted with scenes of his voyage to the afterworld. There is no positive evidence on Tutankhamun's mummy as to how he met his death. During an x-ray of the mummy in 1968, scientists found bone fragments in Tut's skull, prompting a sensational theory that the boy king had been bludgeoned to death. Another recent theory is that King Tutankhamun wasn't murdered after all, but died from a broken leg. According to National Geographic (December 2006) a new CT scan of King Tutankhamun's mummy "showed a thin coating of embalming resin around the leg break, suggesting that Tut broke his leg just before he died and that his death may have resulted from an infection or other complications."

27. THE TUTANKHAMUN COLLECTION Gold Head of Staff in Tutankhamun's Image Lion Head Formingthe Sides of a Bed Alabaster Unguent Jar in the Form of a Lion Unguent Vase in the Form of an Ibex Stained Ivory Headrest Openwork Gold Buckle Gold Falcon Pendant Floral Collar of Faience Beads Tutankhamun's Throne Name

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