Modules 1, 2, 36 - Summer Work

1. Modules 1, 2, 36 - Summer Work AP Psychology Mr. Cruikshank

2. Psychology – What is it? • The science of behavior and mental processes • Behavior: Observable actions of a person or an animal • Mental processes: thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences

3. Psychology – What is it? • Is Psychology a science?? • Science • An objective way to answer questions • Based on observable facts/data and well described methods • YES!

4. Psychology – What is it?? • A set of questions about mental functioning • trace back to philosophy • Aristotle asked about memory, personality, emotions, etc. • A set of theories and procedures for asking and answering questions • the scientific method • evolved over centuries, first in physics • A product of history • philosophy asked many of the basic questions • physiology used similar methods

5. Developments from Philosophy • Major question asked by many philosophers: • How are the mind and the body related?? • Many different theories • Dualism – Mind and body are two separate entities, however they are interrelated • origins in medieval religion • soul is seat of intellectual function and will • mind is product of the soul • mind not subject to scientific inquiry • to challenge this was punishable by death

6. Developments from Philosophy • Dualism – Mind and body are separate • Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) came up with a theory of modified dualism • since animals have no soul, much behavior does not require soul • the body can therefore control much behavior • led him to study reflexes • the soul’s main function is thought, a uniquely human attribute

7. Developments from Philosophy • Other theories developed about the relationship between the mind and the body • Materialism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) • mind is a product of the brain • soul is not involved in human behavior • Empiricism: • knowledge and intellect are acquired, comes from experience • science flourishes through observation/experiment • sensory experiences produce elementary ideas • elementary ideas become associated into complex thought and ideas

8. Developments from Philosophy • Another MAJOR question asked by early philosophers was: Where do our ideas come from? • Empiricism vs. Nativism • Nativism: elementary ideas are innate • Empiricism: our minds are a blank slate, to be filled by our experiences • If nativism is true… • What is the purpose of education? • Can intellect be changed by experience • NATURE VS. NURTURE

9. Developments from Philosophy

10. Foundations of Modern Psychology • Charles Darwin (1809-1882) • Theory of natural selection (1859) • physical characteristics evolve through natural selection • behavioral patterns also influence selection • inborn knowledge and behavioral tendencies with survival value are passed on • Human beings are part of nature and can be understood through the methods of science

11. Foundations of Modern Psychology • Darwin’s theory encouraged scientific inquiry • 19th century developments in physiology demonstrated the approach to use • based on scientific methods, controlled laboratory experiments • influential beliefs from early physiology • reflexology - all human behaviors occur through reflexes • localization of function - specific structures of the brain serve specific functions in the control of mental experiences and behavior • Separated from philosophy in 19th century • influences from physiology remain

12. Foundations of Modern Psychology • Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) • First psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany • wrote the first psychology textbook • applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind • Used introspection – self-examination of one’s own emotional states and mental processes • No longer in use – too unreliable/subjective

13. Foundations of Modern Psychology • Edward Titchener • Was an English student of Wundt • Set up a psych lab at Cornell in 1892. • Established a school of thought known as structuralism • Structuralism – Consciousness can be broken down into basic parts using introspection techniques

14. Foundations of Modern Psychology • William James • American Harvard Professor • Wrote a well-respected textbook Principles of Psychology (1890). • Founded school of thought known as functionalism • Stressed looking at the function/purpose of behavior and tried to apply findings to practical situations. • No longer in use but gave rise to behaviorism

15. Foundations of Modern Psychology • G. Stanley Hall (American) • Established the first psych lab in the US at Johns Hopkins (1883) • Established the first psych journal in the US • Founded the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1892 and was its first president • Mary Whiton Calkins • Completed Ph.D. in Psych under James at Harvard but not granted degree because she was a woman • Received a lesser degree from Radcliffe. • First woman president of the APA in 1905

16. Foundations of Modern Psychology

17. John B. Watson • Founder of Behaviorism • Studied only observable and objectively described acts • Emphasized objective and scientific methodology John B. Watson (1878–1958)

18. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Behaviorist • Russian Physiologist • Studied learning through associations in animals • Emphasized the study of observable behaviors

19. B.F. Skinner • Behaviorist • American psychologist at Harvard • Focused on learning through rewards and observation • studied learning and effect of reinforcement B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

20. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • Austrian physician that focused on illness • Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective • Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts

21. Freud’s Influence • Influence on “pop culture” • Freudian slips • Anal-retentive • Influence on psychology • Psychodynamic theory • Unconscious thoughts • Significance of childhood experiences

22. Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow(1902-1987) (1908-1970) • Helped to create Humanistic Psychology • Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual’s free will • Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.

23. Wolfgang Kohler • Created Gestalt Psychology • The whole is different from the sum of its parts. • Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Wolfgang Kohler (1865-1965)

24. What do you see? You See the whole picture first rather than the individual dots that make it up. – Gestalt Psychology

25. Foundations of Modern Psychology • Margaret Floy Washburn • First woman to earn a PhD in psychology • 2nd woman president of the APA • Francis Cecil Sumner (US) • First African American Ph.D. in psychology • Clark University • Started Psych department at Howard University • Kenneth Clark (US) • Documented the harmful effect of school segregation on Black children. • First African-American APA president (1971)

26. Psychology’s Subfields • Basic Research • Aim is to increase our scientific knowledge base. • Study is conducted to satisfy curiosity and answer questions we have about behavior or mental processes. • Applied Research/Psychology • Aim is to solve practical problems • Looks for ways that research psychology can be made useful and helpful

27. Subfields in Psychology Industrial/Organizational 3% Distribution of Fields: Biological and Experimental 16% Social/Personality 8% Educational 3% Other Psychology 15% Developmental 6% School 3% Clinical 36% Counseling 10%

28. Employment Settings of Psychologists Business & Industry Private Practice School Universities & College Government Professional Work Settings • Colleges and universities • Clinical settings • Elementary and secondary schools • Business • Government

29. Psychology Careers • Clinical Psychologists • Largest group of practitioners • Involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders • Duties include psychological testing, interviewing and therapy • Psychiatrist • Medical doctor dealing with psychological disorders • Provide medical treatments as well as psychological treatment • Only one who can prescribe medicine!

30. Psychology Careers • Counseling Psychologists • Often work with clients whose problems are of a moderate degree • Many specialize in marital or family counseling • School Psychologists • Concerned with social, intellectual, and emotional development of students • Often test students for special programs • Educational Psychologists • Involved in teacher training, curriculum design and other related educational processes

31. Psychology Careers • Industrial/Organizational Psychologists • Work in business and industry • Attempt to improve productivity • May develop employee selection programs, work with advertisers, study consumer behavior, etc. • Social Psychologists • Experimental psychologists who study social situations • Study topics such as conformity, obedience, leadership style • Developmental Psychologists • Research behavior changes occurring across the life span that are due to maturation and development.

32. Psychology Careers • Health Psychologist • Factors in prevention and treatment of illness • Relationships between doctor/patient/family • Forensic Psychologists • Study topics include criminal behavior, eyewitnesses, victims, jury selection • Sport Psychologist • Maximize athletic performance • Benefits of exercise • Human Factors Psychologist • Making technology user friendly • Works with companies who create new technology

33. Psychological Perspectives • Method of classifying a collection of ideas • Also called “schools of thought” • Also called “psychological approaches” • To view behavior from a particular perspective

34. Perspectives • Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena • Psychology has multiple perspectives • Neuroscience • Psychoanalytic • Behavioral • Humanistic • Cognitive • Social-Cultural • Evolutionary • Behavior Genetics

35. Neuroscience Perspective • Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior • Looks at the physical causes of behavior • Brain Chemistry/Anatomy • Genetics • Hormones • Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences

36. Behavioral Perspective • Focuses on environmental causes • Behavior comes from learning • Rewards and Punishment, Observational Learning • Observable behavior is very important • Not interested in internal world

37. Cognitive Perspective • How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior ? • Focuses on internal sentences, thinking/rationality and processing information • Behavior is shaped by our way of thinking/interpreting information • How do we process what is happening around us?

38. Humanistic Perspective • Humanistic approach • developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers • behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ • focus on conscious forces and self perception • All humans are good • Approach stresses interpersonal relations • Important concepts: self-esteem, free will, choice, self-direction – Our behavior is motivated by our desire to fulfill our needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

39. Psychoanalytic Perspective • both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind • behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences • drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior • Traumatic experience in childhood was repressed to the unconscious and is shaping our behavior today • Early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations • Also looks at parental relationships

40. Socio-cultural • The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups • How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture? • Looks at group roles/expectations, along with family traditions • Gender Roles/socioeconomic class • Peer Pressure/Family Pressure/Media Influences

41. Evolutionary Perspective • Goes back to Darwin’s theory of natural selection • Genes predispose us to act • Our motive is survival and to pass on genes • All behavior is driven by survival of species • A behavior that we do today was helpful for our ancestors to survive

42. Behavior Genetics • Focus: How behavior is affected by genes and the environment • Combines biology and behaviorism • Emphasis on the importance of both genetic and environmental factors on behavior

44. Perspectives Timeline

45. The Scientific Method of Research • Definition: Assumptions, attitudes and procedures that guide researchers in generating questions to investigate, in generating evidence and in drawing conclusions • Assume behavior follows consistent patterns with cause and effect • Attitude of open mindedness and critical thinking • Procedure of steps to follow in order to arrive at the truth. • Empirical Evidence – data that is the result of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation • Pseudoscience – a FAKE or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence

46. Problems that can occur: • Hindsight bias – the tendency to believe after learning the outcome, that one would have foreseen it. • Common Sense is often wrong! • Overconfidence – we tend to think we know more than we do • Rule of Falsifiability – to scientifically test a claim there must be identifiable evidence that could prove the claim false. • We must have critical thinking when doing research. Do not blindly accept arguments/conclusions. • Instead, examine the evidence and look for alternative solutions/explanations

47. Problems that can occur: • Barnum Effect • “There’s a sucker born every minute” • Statements can gull people into thinking they have been accurately assessed by the speaker or test when in fact the outcome could apply to anyone. • Individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people • Provide partial explanations for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, and some types of personality tests

48. Other Biases • Confirmation Bias – our tendency to search for information that confirms our beliefs and ignore those that don’t • Researcher Bias – the tendency to notice evidence which supports one particular point of view or hypothesis • Volunteer Bias – People who volunteer to participate in a survey are different from those who do not • Participant Bias – Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed. • Do you act the same way in the classroom that you do at home? • Also known as Hawthorne Effect

49. What is Motivation? • Factors within and outside an organism that cause it to behave a certain way at a certain time • Biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior.

50. Three Basic Characteristics • Activation is demonstrated by the initiation or production of behavior. • Persistence is demonstrated by continued efforts or the determination to achieve a particular goal, often in the face of obstacles. • Intensity is seen in the greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior