Great ideas have their limitations….

1. Great ideas have their limitations….

2. Foundations of Modern Astronomy (and physics) • Ancient Greeks • Celestial Models • Assumptions • Earth stationary • All motions around the Earth • All motions are uniform, circular motions • Is that such a big problem? • Evidence for above assumptions? • Time for some more animation…

3. Laws, Theories, Hypothesis What is the difference? What about Natural Law Scientific Law Empirical Law Are theories the end of the discussion?

4. Claudius Ptolemy (90-168) • Years of previous models, data • Tweaked the models to fit data better • Still not perfect, but the best so far • So that’s all she wrote on that, right?

5. Epicycle Mars Equant Earth Deferent

6. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) • New view – Heliocentric • Not better!!!

7. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Finally got it right • Kepler’s 3 Laws of Planetary Motion • What do they tell us? • What don’t they tell us?

8. Law #1 – The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus. Perihelion Aphelion Focus Average distance = (distance from perihelion to aphelion)/2 =? Average distance = 1 Astronomical Unit

9. Law #2 – A line from a planet to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time. Huh? Let’s try this – planets move faster when they are at perihelion than when they are at aphelion. Velocity changes depending upon their distance from the sun. Why?

10. Law #3 – A planet’s orbital period squared is proportional to its average distance from the sun cubed. Mathematically: P2 a3 P2 = k a3 (k = constant) Special formula – If orbiting the sun P in years, a in AU P2 = a3

11. Kepler’s laws – not just for breakfast anymore! Actually not just for planets. Kepler’s laws apply to anything orbiting Moons orbiting planets Comets orbiting the sun Stars orbiting other stars Stars orbiting around a galaxy Galaxies orbiting other galaxies Groups of galaxies orbiting other groups of galaxies

12. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Invented the telescope • Used the telescope and wrote about it! • Observations favored Kepler, not Ptolemy

15. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) • The ultimate nerd • Did NOT “invent” gravity • Did derive the 3 Laws of Motion

16. Law #1 – A body continues at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some force. Huh? Let’s try this - • Moving Things: straight line, steady pace • Non-moving things: well, nothing. • The above (1 & 2) remain that way unless something messes around with the things. • Change in motion is caused by a force. (Change in motion = change in speed, direction)

17. Law #2 – A body’s change in motion is proportional to the force acting on it and is in the direction of the force. Change in motion = acceleration (which can also be a deceleration) Force  acceleration Force = mass x acceleration F = m a Mass  weight Mass = stuff, material, matter

18. Law #3 – When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force back on the first body. Huh? Cosmic Karma “Little brother/sister rule” Forces are a two way street – you get as good as you give…

19. Newton’s Law of Gravity F = force of gravity negative = towards G = constant M= one mass, usually the larger m = the other, usually the smaller r = distance between centers of masses (usually centers)

20. Ramifications of gravity • Limits? • Composition? • Changes in motion • Objects change direction (acceleration) • Objects change speed (acceleration) • Distance is squared! • Feel the effects of gravity? • Feel the same/different amounts of gravity?

21. Orbits • Objects orbit due to gravity • Change from straight motion to curved path • Can it explain Kepler’s Laws?

22. What isn’t explained by Newton? • How does gravity work? • What is actually causing the change in motion? • Is there “anti-gravity”? • Do Newton’s Laws explain all motions? • Did he invent the fig newton? • Time to shoot off Newton’s cannon!

23. Light • Almost all astronomical data is in this form! • More than just visible • Acts like a wave • Effected by velocity (Doppler effect) • Measureable wavelength, frequency, velocity • Acts like a particle • Photon=particle of energy • Amount of energy depends on wavelength/frequency

24. Types of light • Radio • Microwave • Infrared • Visible (ROYGBIV) • Ultraviolent • X-ray • Gramma-ray How are they different? Wavelength Energy DANGER!!!! How are they the same? VELOCITY! Ultraviolet Gamma-ray

25. Spectra • Interaction of light and matter • Why? • Light=Energy • Matter made up of atoms • Atoms made up of protons, neutrons, electrons • Electrons influenced by energy

26. e p

27. e p

28. Atoms and Light • Atoms can absorb light depending upon density • Individual atoms discretely absorb some light • More atoms (denser) absorb more types of light • Solid objects absorb most types of light • Atoms can emit light depending upon density • Individual atoms discretely emit some light • More atoms (denser) emit more types of light • Solid objects emit most types of light

29. Spectrum • “Rainbow” but so much more • Light viewed in detail • Seen over a range of wavelengths • Seen over a range of frequencies • Seen over a range of photon energies • Type of spectra depends upon conditions

30. Kirchhoff’s Laws • Absorption Spectrum • Emission Spectrum • Continuous Spectrum • Type of spectrum reveals information on • Composition (possibly) • Temperature • Density

31. Do both of these illustrate the same thing?

33. Stellar Spectra What type of spectrum is this?

34. How do you make sense of all of this?

35. Use basic rules for spectra • If the spectra shows features for an element, the element is present. • If the spectra doesn’t show the feature for the element, then the element isn’t present. • Spectra sorted according to elements presence/absence/unique features.

36. But… “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence” – Carl Sagan Are elements present/absent for another reason? Yes – temperature! Re-arrange those spectra!

37. Hottest Coolest

38. Coolest But they have already been named/labeled! Just rearrange the order of the labels Hottest

39. Spectral Classification System • Classifies stars according to TEMPERATURE • Ordered from Hottest to Coolest • Originally included only those visible to eye • Extends to IR types now OBAFGKMLT • More detail with B0, B1, B2, etc • Sun = G2

40. Fusion Confusion • Not fission • Energy released by fusing atoms • Only useful for low mass atoms (<Fe) • Creates more complex atoms • Difficult to do • High Density • High Temperature

41. + Deuterium n

42. Helium 3 g

43. Proton Helium 4 Proton

44. What does it all mean? • Mass  Energy • Hydrogen  Helium • Evidence?