Chapter 6: Language and its effects on the reader

1. Part 3 Discovering Meaning: The Importance of Language Chapter 6: Language and its effects on the reader

2. In this chapter, we will be concerned with language in prose writing—with words and the effect the writer intends them to have on us. Chapter 6: Language and its effects on the reader

3. Chapter objectives: Chapter 6: Language and its effects on the reader • Denotation and connotation • Figurative language (metaphors, similes, and personification) • Language misused and abused

4. Denotation and Connotation Much of our pleasure in reading derives from savoring the emotional associations such efforts afford us.

5. Denotation and Connotation Some words are meant to arouse positive feelings, some are meant to be neutral or literal, while others are meant to convey a negative impression. Word choice, or diction

6. Connotation: The cluster of suggestions, ideas, or emotional associations a word conjures up. To understand the connotation of a word, extensive reading is required and a willingness to consult the dictionary when a word is not understood. Denotation and Connotation Two elements in word choice: Denotation: The literal or explicit meaning of a word; often called the dictionary definition.

7. Denotation and Connotation If we pay only attention to the denotation of words, our understanding is limited to the surface meaning. Connotation extends the meaning beyond the surface which helps us to see more in what we read—the implications and association beyond the merely literal.

8. Denotation and Connotation Connotation and Synonyms Words may appear to be synonyms but actually are not.

9. Denotation and Connotation Go to Practice Exercise 2 on p. 191 Study the cartoon found on the page. Explain in your own words the humor of the cartoon. Does the humor rely on a problem with denotation or with connotation?

10. Denotation and Connotation Possible response to Practice Exercise 2 on p. 191 The woman who is speaking has a very different interpretation of what the word saving denotes. The newspaper headline refers to accumulating savings (savings accounts, investments, putting money aside), whereas the woman thinks that saving means buying shoes on sale.

11. Denotation and Connotation Connotation and Levels of Language Levels of language also influence connotation.

12. Denotation and Connotation Connotative Restrictions and the Importance of Context • Comprehension suffers when the reader perceives a different meaning to the word. • Thus, personal interpretation is one problem with connotation.

13. Denotation and Connotation Connotative Restrictions and the Importance of Context • Often, students consult a thesaurus when writing summaries or other assignments. • A thesaurus treats all synonyms as if they were interchangeable, with equal denotative and connotative values

14. Denotation and Connotation Connotative Restrictions and the Importance of Context • Often, connotative values of words are restricted to specific contexts. • Being able to choose the right word depends on understanding the context of the way the word is used.

15. Denotation and Connotation Go to Practice Exercise 3 on p. 193 In your own words, explain the connotative restrictions in these three words. Specifically, to what kind of person (age and gender, for example), do these words usually refer to? Consult an unabridged dictionary if necessary. spry debonair demure

16. Denotation and Connotation

17. Denotation and Connotation Connotative Restrictions In addition to the positive or negative “charge” that words can convey, some words in English are restricted to describe a particular group. Words are powerful and through experience and practice, the word bank increases for the reader.

18. Denotation and Connotation How Denotation and Connotation Work Together When examining a passage for denotative and connotative words, look first at the major words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Nouns are necessary to identify the thing or person or idea being talked about. Connotative words are apt to be verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

19. Denotation and Connotation Connotation in Fiction In fiction, a writer may use descriptive details that are designed to evoke in the reader a particular emotional response to the characters. These details help you both to visualize and assess the character.

20. Denotation and Connotation See p. 196 the “Critical Thinking Exercise” What does the word crusade mean to Muslims? What does it connote to Westerners?

21. Figurative Language Figures of speech are common in poetry but are also used to employ immediacy or drama to writing or to create a mental image, to establish a mood, or to clarify a difficult concept. The use of a figure of speech refers to the use of language not in its literal sense, but in a metaphorical or imaginative way.

22. Figurative Language

23. Figurative Language A metaphor refers to a direct comparison, in which a particular quality or characteristic of one thing (the figurative) is transferred to another (the literal). To analyze a metaphor, you need first to identify the literal subject. Then, to identify what the literal subject is compared to. It reinforces the idea that is being described. Metaphors and similes both represent imaginative comparisons between two essentially unlike things.

24. Figurative Language A simile is an imaginative comparison stated indirectly, usually with words “like,” “as,” “as though,” “as if,” and occasionally “seem.” The metaphor is considered to be stronger than the simile because it is directly understood than to be inferred. Metaphors and similes both represent imaginative comparisons between two essentially unlike things.

25. Figurative Language Figures of speech serve to enhance the reading experience. Writers used their imagination to extend the experience through the reader’s mind. Figurative Language and the Imagination

26. Figurative Language When the writer only suggests the comparison, the reader has to infer what is meant by the comparison. Figurative Language and Inferences

27. Figurative Language • to provide a visual image • to establish a mood or situation • to reinforce an observation • to clarify a difficult scientific concept • to persuade or convince The most common uses of Metaphors and Similes:

28. Figurative Language Something inanimate or nonhuman is given human attributes or feelings. Personification

29. Figurative Language Go to p. 203 and do Practice Exercise 6. Doing this exercise and the next two (Exs. 7 and 8) will require some analysis. Use paper to note your ideas. • First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification. • Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. • Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

30. Figurative Language Answers to p. 203, Practice Exercise 6. • First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification. • Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. • Finally, briefly explain the meaning. • 1. MetaphorThe butterflies were small and colorful and filled the air. • 2. MetaphorThe visual figure “ribbon” refers to the river; it complements and extends the adjective “slender” and emphasizes its narrowness.

31. Figurative Language • Simile • The students displayed little energy in the hot classroom. • Simile • The woman’s life is narrow and limiting; she is trapped. • Personification • Regret is compared to an insistent and cold woman.

32. Figurative Language • Metaphor • Ultima’s eyes are keen, like those of an owl, a bird known for its keen ability to spot prey from afar. • Simile • This figure of speech reinforces the way gamblers attach themselves to slot machines for hours at a time. • Simile • The marauders left nothing after they plundered the countryside.

33. Figurative Language Go to p. 204 and do Practice Exercise 7. • First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech. • Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. • Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

34. Figurative Language Answers to p. 204, Practice Exercise 7. • First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech. • Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. • Finally, briefly explain the meaning. • 1. Metaphors“Frosty” and “steely” suggest that Miss Emily was a coldly stern woman. • 2. MetaphorAmerica is compared to a large, friendly dog. The nation is clumsy in foreign affairs but also displays good humor and desire to be liked.

35. Figurative Language • Metaphor • The huge influx of immigrants coming into Paterson couldn’t be stopped. • Similes • Her skin is tight, and her eyes are small, piercing, and cold. • Simile • Just when the prisoner thinks he has survived one danger, an even bigger one presents itself.

36. Figurative Language • Simile • Walking in long skirts in the snow was awkward and clumsy, like trying to walk while wearing a bedspread. • Metaphors • Sean and Lauren’s marriage is shattered and can’t be put back together. Lauren’s articulateness is beyond what Sean can comprehend.

37. Figurative Language Go to p. 206 and do Practice Exercise 8. • First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech. • Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. • Finally, briefly explain the meaning.

38. Figurative Language Answers to p. 206, Practice Exercise 8. • First, decide whether the excerpt represents a simile, a metaphor, or personification or more than one figure of speech. • Then, decide what the literal subject is and what it is metaphorically being compared to. • Finally, briefly explain the meaning. • MetaphorsThe references to a football field, a desktop, and a tennis court describe the fact pace at which Louisiana wetlands are disappearing and help the reader visualize the loss.

39. Figurative Language • SimileThe narrator’s feelings of repugnance and guilt toward her lover are minimal. • Personification • Hockey originated in Canada as a working class sport, but when it moved to the United States and tried to be accepted on the same level as baseball, it failed.

40. Figurative Language • Metaphor • Funnel clouds and elephants’ trunks are the same shape and the same color of gray. Both suck everything up before moving on. • Metaphors • The man who doesn’t read is isolated by his inability to learn about anything outside his immediate world.

41. Figurative Language • Simile • Marco’s alienation is causing him ever-present pain.MetaphorHaving skipped bail, Marco has compounded his problems, which are now impossible to surmount. • Metaphor • Blacks and whites must work together for the common good.

42. Connotation and Our Perception of the Issues In this portion of Ch. 6, you will read a discussion of how the media and politicians use connotative language to slant the truth and to shape our perceptions. Government officials and politicians are especially guilty of providing us with the very best by putting the best spin on their proposals or on world events.

43. Connotation and Our Perception of the Issues How?

44. Connotation and Our Perception of the Issues We become immune to linguistic abuse.

45. Connotation and Our Perception of the Issues Problems with connotation can cause even the most professional and dedicated journalist to stumble. How Word Choice Influences Our Perceptions—the Media

46. Connotation and Our Perception of the Issues Result?

47. Language misused and abused Clever language may consist of the following manipulative language:

48. Language misused and abused tired, overused expressions Good writers avoid clichés because these fossilized expressions long ago lost their effectiveness; many no longer make sense. Clichés (the lazy writer)

49. Clichés – commonly used Language misused and abused

50. Clichés – contemporary Language misused and abused