South Asia c. 1000

1. South Asia c. 1000 Contextualizing Ghaznavid Expansion

3. Aspects of Geography • River valleys in broad plains (Ganges, Indus, Kavery) were more likely to have dense populations than river valleys in rocky areas (Narmada) • The heavier flow of monsoons (July-August) ensured prosperity in some areas. • The Deccan is not an impervious barrier, however, it did lead to a slightly different set of political and cultural formations in the North versus the south • Linguistic and geographical regions overlap

4. Geographic advantages • Most parts of River valleys very fertile—allow 2-3 crops per year • Abundant free labor • Geographical micro-regions also lead to great linguistic, social, and political diversity • Easy travel allows for trade—although the instability of N.W border is a concern

6. Religions in S. Asia • In the previous centuries, Buddhism had become greatly popular, but slowly through the late medieval period, Hinduism had a re-surgance. • The caste system, as a result of this change, also became more entrenched • In terms of practice, however, there was great diversity (ex. Monotheism v. Polytheism, etc.) • Significant groups of Buddhists, Jains, Christians, Jews, Zorastrians, and Muslims continued to be found in S. Asia, specially in trading zones.

7. Caste System • Two modes of classifciation • According to Brahminical classical texts: Varna is rigid, based on birth • Brahmin: Priests and scholars • Kshatriya: Warriors and Kings • Vaishya: Traders, Merchants, Shopkeepers • Shudra: Peasants • In actual practice, Jati is more common • Kinship groups • Marriage patterns based on kin exogamy, caste endogamy

8. Political Developments, c. 1000 • Since the seventh century, smaller kingdoms had become the norm • Dominated by new warrior groups such as Rajputs (north) and Cholas (south) • Most had smaller territories and subdivided rule among subordinate dynasties • Cholas were more expansionist, had features of a growing empire

9. Turkish Groups Rajputs—many chiefs (Gurjara-Pratiharas) Palas Rashtrakuts Cholas

10. Political Trends:North-west Frontier • The weakening of the Abbasid Empire in the middle east gave an impetus to Turkish, Afghan, Mongol tribes in Central Asia. • These groups would expand out of Central Asia into the Middle East, S. Asia, and China. • Most groups were pastoral nomads, but their background offered many advantages compared to the sedentary, settled empires they attacked.

11. Origins of Turkish Power • Origins of Turks • Relative status of Turks at the time of Mahmud’s birth r. 998-1030CE (former slave soldiers) • Open-ness of Turkish identity and utility in raising armies • Influence of Islam—were Turkish states theocracies or was it a legitimizing move? • Persianization—language, arts, courtly culture (Patronage of Al-Beruni and Firdausi)

12. Mahmud’s rise to power • Benefited from the expansion under his father Subuktigin • Was able to create larger army by enrolling other tribes and mercenaries • Needed larger revenue sources to continue expansion and pay allies

14. Mahmud’s Raids and Imperial policy • Create Tax base to maintain a large army with many cavalry units, horses, equipment • Create a sense of personal loyalty among ethnically diverse commanders through the distribution of wealth, looted goods, and treasure • Realization that only territories closer to the periphery of Ghazni could be ruled directly, so no attempt to annex Indian territories west of the Indus into the core of the empire. • Secure trade routes in Central Asia and secure the borders of the core empire by creating tributary states, but not waste resources conquering them. • Therefore Mahmud’s presence in India is only through temporary raids, not through conquest.

15. Major Campaigns • 1000-1005 Northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir • 1006, 1008-1009 Multan • 1018-1019—First extensive raid into Delhi, Mathura, Kanauj • 1025-1026 The Somnath raids • Some myths and realities about raids

16. Sources for this period • Utubi—Mahmud’s court historian • Al-Beruni—war captive and scholar • Later histories such as those authored by Ferishta, Isami, Barani some 200-400 years later • Rules governing Tarikh (Persian court histories) Indian Itihaasa/Purana traditions • How do we sift through these texts? • Be alert for biases • Look for obvious exaggerations, compare with other sources • Think carefully of the relationship between the author, patron, and the story being told

17. Contemporary Perceptions • Mahmud’s raids seen as an “Islamic Conquest” • Relationship b/w perception and religious polarization in South Asia, compare Pakistani v. Indian views • Great exaggeration of impact of raids, Imperial control, numbers killed

18. Mahmud’s motivation and his impact: conclusions • Was his primary motivation political or religious (sharia-minded)? • Primary impact was not that of conquest but of the possibility of gaining access to a vastly profitable land—the weakness of Indian borders. Also demonstrated the need for local allies and the difficulties of continued rule. • The raided parts quickly recovered. Trade was established, temples were rebuilt. Rajput confederacies quickly re-established political control. • The popular historiography is less helpful in giving us information about Mahmud’s own time, much more useful in indicating his influence and growing myth in later times as exemplary Turkish warrior and ruler.

19. Ilbari Rule • Long gap of almost 150 years between Mahmud and the Ilbaris • Next campaign does not occur until the late 12th Century under Muhammad Ghori • The renewed strength of the Rajputs and Indian tribes is clearly demonstrated in their strong opposition of Muhammad Ghori’s armies

20. Comparing Campaign Routes

21. Muiz-ud-din Mohamad Ghori, 1173-1206 • Multan campaign—1175-8 • Lahore—1179-86, three attempts • First Battle of Tarrain—1190 • Finally, Victory at the Second Battle of Tarrain, 1192—Why?