THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST, 1450 - 1750

1. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WEST, 1450 - 1750 An Era of Revolutions

2. TWO RENAISSANCES • Italian Renaissance • Renaissance, or rebirth of art and learning, 1350-1600 • Aristocrats, popes, nobles became wealthy patrons and vied to outdo one another • City-states sponsored innovations in art and architecture • Macaccio, Leonard) used linear perspective to show depth • Sculptors (Donatello and Michelangelo) created natural poses • Renaissance architecture • Simple, elegant style, inherited from classical Greek and Roman • Magnificent domed cathedrals • Brunelleschi's cathedral of Florence • St. Peter’s in Rome • Humanists or Man is the Measure of All Things • Drew inspiration from classical models especially Greece, Rome • Leading scholars included Dante, Petrarch • Scholars interested in humane letters • Literature, history, and moral philosophy • Called humanists • Recovered and translated many classical works • Attention to political and social issues and graces, too • Boccaccio’s Decameron • Castiglione’s The Courtier • Machiavelli’s The Prince • Northern Renaissance • Especially strong in France, England, Netherlands • Focus was more on science, math, and Christianity (language favored was Hebrew) • Strongly supported by the middle classes and minor nobles • Leading figures include Shakespeare, Durer, Erasmus, Protestant reformers

3. PROTESTANT REFORMATION • Precursors to Luther • Great Schism • 2/3 popes at same time undermined authority of the church • Church councils rule/attempt to overrule popes • Jan Hus in Holy Roman Empire and Wycliffe in England • Both attacked aspects of church corruption, wealth, practices • Both condemned by Church • Hus executed, but Wycliffe protected by King of England • Wycliffe had Bible translated into English • Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Attacked the sale of indulgences, 1517 • Attacked corruption in Catholic Church; called for reform • Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read • Enthusiastic response from lay Christians, princes, many cities • By mid-16th century, half Germans adopted Lutheranism • Reform spread outside Germany • Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Netherlands • Scandinavian kings like movement as it removes Church as a rival • English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce • John Calvin, French convert to Protestantism • Organized model Protestant community in Geneva in the 1530s • Calvinist missionaries were successful in France • Zwingli leads Calvinist like reformation in Switzerland • John Know leads Presbyterian movement in Scotland • Martin Bucer writes pamphlets, lead to rise of Puritan movement in England

4. CATHOLIC REFORMATION • Early Attempts to Reform • Catholic cardinals, bishops call council in early 15th century • Council of Constance deposes rival popes • Attempts to assert authority over pope, initial reforms • Catholic intellectuals attack Church corruption • Emperor Sigismund attempts to reform church in Germany • Church reaction to Luther, Protestants • Charles V, Church condemn, excommunicate Luther • King Henry VIII condemns Luther • Inquisition unleashed against Protestants • Spanish use wealth to fund anti-Protestants • The Council of Trent, 1545-1563 • Directed reform of Roman Catholic Church • Attacked corruption • Reaffirmed tradition, Bible as co-equal • The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) • Founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola • High standards in education • Combat Protestants with logic, faith, hard work • Saved S. Germany, E. Europe from Protestants • Became confessors, advisories to kings • Worldwide missionaries

5. RELIGIOUS CONFLICT • Religious wars • Between Protestants, Catholics during 16TH century • Wars as much social, political as religious • Neither side is innocent of conflict • Civil war in France • Between Huguenots (French Calvinists), Catholic League • Monarchy often a pawn of both sides and nobles • Lasted thirty-six years (1562-1598) • Ended with new dynasty • Spanish Armada • War between Catholic Spain, Protestant England, 1588 • Spill over from conflict in the Netherlands • Question of heir to English throne: Catholic Scottish Queen or Protestant Elizabeth • Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain • Originally began as a revolt of all Netherlands against Spain • Eventually split country into Catholic south (Belgium) and Protestant north (Holland) • The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) • The most destructive European war up to WWI • Began as a local conflict in Bohemia; eventually involved most of Europe • Devastated the Holy Roman Empire (German states): lost one-third population • Saw rise of Sweden as Great Power and eclipse of Spain, Hapsburgs as European great power • Saw independence of Holland, Switzerland from Holy Roman Empire • Ended with Germany neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire • Scottish Presbyterians revolt • Expel Catholic Queen with England’s secret assistance • Raise her kidnapped son as Presbyterian

6. NEW RELIGIOUS MAP

7. STATE BUILDING • Italian city-states • Flourished with industries and trade • Each with independent administration and army • Levied direct taxes on citizens • More powerful absorbed smallest • France and England • Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) • Fought for control of French lands • Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war • Central government over feudal nobility • English War of the Roses leads to Tudor Dynasty • Louis XI reduces powers of feudal aristocracy • Spain united • By marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile • Sales tax supported a powerful standing army • Conquered Granada from Muslims • Seized southern Italy in 1494 • Sponsored Columbus's quest for western route to China • Competition among European states • Frequent small-scale wars • Encouraged new military and naval technology • Technological innovations strengthened armies • Dynastic Politics • Constant search for an heir • Must marry for political advantage • Gave women influence as regents, brides, mother of heir

8. NEW MONARCHS • New Monarchs • Taxes, armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century • Used feudal powers but added new powers to become dominant in society • Developing towards divine right monarchs answerable only to God, not people • Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France are two best examples • France, England and Spain • All three united after long wars • Kings have new, broad powers • Nobles often weakened; new nobles created out of middle classes • Enhanced royal, centralized powers • Wealthy treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees • State power enlarged and more centralized • Standing armies in France and Spain • Professional bureaucrats loyal only to monarch, not church • Nobility status often sold to wealthy merchants to raise funds • Reformation increased royal power • Kings confiscate wealth, land of the Church • Kings sell off lands to middle class, making them loyal to state • Even Catholic monarchs tended to follow this trend • New law courts enhance royal power • Kings tend to function above the law • English Star Chambers – do not require warrants, trials • The Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478 • Intended to discover secret Muslims and Jews • Used by Spanish monarchy to detect Protestant heresy and political dissidents • French Parlements reduced to law courts not legislative assemblies

9. ATTEMPTED REVIVAL OF EMPIRE • Charles V • Reigned 1519-1556 • Holy Roman Emperor • Austria • Czech lands, Silesia • Hungary, Slovakia, • Slovenia, Croatia • Netherlands • Eastern France • Milan, Northern Italy • King of Spain • Castile • Navarre • Catalonia • Two Sicilies • Spanish American Empire, Philippines • Inherited a vast empire of far-flung holdings through marriage • Unable to establish a unified state • Disputes with German nobles, France, and Ottoman Empire • German nobles resented his power and obstructed his every move • Many nobles became Protestant as it was a tool against emperor • Even Catholic nobles supported Reformation as it limited his religious influence • France opposed Charles and supported Protestants, Charles’ enemies • Charles main enemy was Ottoman Empire • France, Protestants and Turks allied against Charles • Charles forces defeat Turks, block moves; unable to take advantage of strength

10. CONTITUTIONAL AND ABSOLUTE MONARCHS • Constitutional states of England and the Netherlands • Divine Right Monarchs limited by war, nobles, wealthy • Characterized by • Powers limited by constitutions, bills of right, convention • No one is above the law, property is protected by law • Representative institutions: rights of oversight, taxation, review, veto • Prominent merchant classes enjoyed unusual prosperity • Commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference • Dutch constitutional monarchy evolved out of religious wars • England’s road to rights • Constitutional monarchy in England evolved out of a civil war • English Glorious Revolution 1688 • English Bill of Rights 1689 • Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia • Based on the theory of the divine right of kings • Relied often on bureaucrats, professional armies • Great trappings of power especially palaces, images • Restricted power of aristocracy, legislatures and church • Relied on mercantilism to generate taxable wealth • Spain, Austria united by Hapsburg marriage, inheritance • Cardinal Richelieu • French chief minister 1624-1642 • Crushed power of nobles • Supported Protestants, Sweden against Hapsburgs, Spain, Austria • Prussia began to rise in late 17th century • Based on absolutism and army • Eventually will unite Germany

11. LOUIS XIV OF FRANCE • King of France • Called the Sun King • Planets revolve around the sun • Sun gives light, warmth of the solar system • Reigned 1643-1715 • Bureaucracy • Used middle class for professional bureaucrats • Established intendants tp carry out wishes • Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles • Nobles reduced to serving king, state • Became generals, diplomats, ministers • Lived at Versailles where king spied on them • Large professional standing army • Well trained, well paid, well equipped • Kept, enforced order • Mercantilism and Colonies • Minister Colbert was mastermind behind wealth • Promoted economic development: roads, canals • Promoted industry, and exports especially luxuries • Built large French navy and colonies in North America, India • Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia saw France as model

12. EUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM • The Peace of Westphalia (1648) • Ended the Thirty Years' War • Began system of independent sovereign states • Abandoned notion of religion unity • Did not end war between European states • The balance of power • No state allowed to dominate others • Diplomacy based on shifting alliances • No permanent alliances • Only permanent interests • Religion unimportant to determining alliances • Destroy no nation • Make no permanent enemies • Military development costly and competitive • New armaments (cannons and small arms) • New military tactics • Extremely intricate fortifications • Professional navies with modern warships, weapons • China, India, and the Islamic states did not keep apace • Small, well-trained armies become critical

13. THE NATION-STATE • Nation-State • Ethnic group with common language, culture • Shared history, traditions • Shared institutions (faith, politics) • Occupying a common territory • Ruled by a common government • Government’s job • Insure domestic tranquility and happiness • Assumed many of the Church’s old social roles • Multiple ethnic groups destroy nation-state • Belief in Nation-state became new popular ideology • Love of your nation above others is nationalism • Originated as an elite idea of the aristocracy, educated elite • Loyalty to state, king more important than loyalty to church, pope • Martin Luther addresses the “German People” • King James, Wycliffe translate Bible into English • French have Joan of Arc fighting for France against English • Scotsmen, English resent Catholic “Romish” influence • Dutch, Portuguese, Catalans revolt against foreign Spanish rule

14. WAR AND PEACE

15. POPULATION GROWTH • Population growth • American foods improved European nutrition, diets • Increased resistance to epidemics after 1650s • Life spans increased • Infant deaths decrease • Population growth • American food crops improved Europeans' nutrition and diets • Increased resistance to epidemic diseases after the mid-seventeenth century • European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800 • Urbanization • Rapid growth of major cities: Paris from 130,000 in 1550 to 500,000 in 1650 • Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers • Most dramatic in Ireland, England, Poland, France, Netherlands • Urbanization • Rapid growth of major cities • For example, Paris from 130,000 (1550) to 500,000 (1650) • London, Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Lyons • Cities increasingly important: administrative, commercial, intellectual centers

16. EARLY CAPITALISM • Profits and ethics • Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful • Renaissance merchants supported changes, arts becoming influential in society • Protestant Reformation saw profit, success as signs of God’s Favor • Early capitalism • Led to increased influence for urban middle classes • Altered rural society • Improved material standards • Increased independence of rural workers • Capitalism generated deep social strains • Bandits, muggers, witch-hunting • Began to impoverish urban workers • Pricing Revolutions were common • Impoverished aristocrats, peasants • Too much money chasing too few goods • The Price Revolution • Use of money replaced barter • Imports of gold, silver led to trade imbalances • Mercantilism demanded payments in gold, silver • Spain, Portugal did not support manufacturing • Both countries had to import goods • Northern Europeans demanded payment in gold, silver • Too much money chasing too few goods • Inflation resulted • Peasants, aristocrats • On fixed incomes • Payment in kind economies suffered • Inflation drove real wages down

17. GRAPHS OF THE DISASTER

18. COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION • The nature of capitalism • Private parties sought to take advantage of free market conditions • Economic decisions by private parties, not by governments or nobility • Forces of supply and demand determined price • New managerial skills and banking arrangements arose • Supply and demand • Merchants built efficient transportation and communication networks • New institutions and services: banks, insurance, stock exchanges • Joint-stock companies • Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies • Organized commerce on a new scale • Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands • Rise of Manufacturing • Colonial markets, population stimulated manufacturing • Putting-out system of 17th and 18th centuries • Entrepreneurs bypassed guilds • Moved production to countryside • Rural labor cheap, cloth production highly profitable • Capitalism actively supported by governments • Especially in England and Netherlands • Chartered joint-stock companies • Protected property, upheld contracts, settled disputes • Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations • Considered the founding father of capitalism • Society would prosper as individuals pursued their own interests • States were to support private interests, free trade

19. MORE CHANGES • Mass Culture Arises • Nationalism, national faiths arise embracing all • Use of some luxuries becomes common • Rise of leisure time even for poorer peoples • Rise of professional entertainment • Immigration by commoners to colonies • Agriculture changes • New technologies applied to farming • Draining swamps, animal breeding • New tools to increase productivity • Introduction of new world crops, i.e. potato • Manufacturing • Mass produced items common: textiles, metal products • Capitalism stimulates production as profitable • New jobs caused people to move into manufacturing from agriculture • New Social Classes • Rise of entrepreneurial class with great wealth • Rise of a technological managerial class

20. SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIAL PROTEST • Rise of urban, rural working class • Referred to as proletariat • Paid low wages in horrible conditions • At mercy of price revolutions • Many peasants reduced to paid wages • Population growth • Urbanization increased tensions • Growth increased poverty • Social Tensions • Peasant revolts especially during Reformation • In France, Germany rose against landlords • Many sought more radical forms of Protestantism • Urban citizens also tended towards Protestantism • Persecution of witches • Elite and Mass Culture • Prior to Reformation, there were two cultures, elite and common • Two rarely intermixed or cooperated • Mass culture such as entertainment • Faith often became elite culture • The nuclear family strengthened by capitalism • Families more independent economically, socially, and emotionally • Love between men and women • Parents and children became more important

21. GENDER ISSUES • Renaissance saw expansion of women’s rights • Books written for women • Education of women allowed • Women could enter public arena as intellectuals • Artesmia Gentileschi was a painter • Reformation took back many of the rights • Many reformers were women • Many threatened males traditional roles • Margaritte of Navarre, Elizabeth of England • Protestants emphasized family role of women • Witch-hunts in Europe • Theories, fears of witches intensified in 16th century • Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship • About sixty thousand executed, 95 percent of them women • Commercial, Capitalist Revolution • Women needed often to support family by outside work • Many women merchants very successful • Women assumed new economic roles • Education and Women • Education was one of few avenues open to women • Aristocratic women often educated • Enlightenment saw first major victories for women’s rights • Women ran intellectual salons of France • Many very prominent as philosophes: Madame de Stael • Some few feminists appeared

22. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS • The reconception of the universe • The Ptolemaic universe • A motionless earth surrounded by nine spheres • Could not account for observable movement of the planets • Compatible with Christian conception of creation • The Copernican universe • Copernicus suggested sun was center of universe, 1543 • Implied that the earth was just another planet • The Scientific Revolution • Science becomes the new authority and challenges faith for control • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) demonstrated planetary orbits elliptical • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • With a telescope saw sunspots, moons of Jupiter, mountains of the moon • Theory of velocity, falling bodies anticipated modern law of inertia • Tried by Inquisition as his ideas challenged Papal infallibility • Isaac Newton (1642-1727) • Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1686 • Mathematical explanations of laws govern movements of bodies • Newton's work symbolized the scientific revolution • Direct observation • Mathematical reasoning

23. ENLIGHTENMENT • Enlightenment • Thinkers called philosophes • Sought natural laws that governed human society • Center of Enlightenment was France • Theory of progress was ideology of philosophes • Apply reason/science to society, government, law • Voltaire (1694-1778) • Champion of religious liberty and individual freedom • Prolific writer; father of Enlightenment • John Locke • All human knowledge comes from sense perceptions • Life, Liberty and Property; 1689 English Bill of Rights • Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive ruler • Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price • Montesquieu: checks, balances, balanced government • Deism • Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment • Accepted existence of a god • Denied supernatural teachings of Christianity • God the Clockmaker • Ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws • Impact of Enlightenment • Weakened the influence of organized religion • Encouraged secular values based on reason rather than revelation • Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress and prosperity • Enlightenment applied science to every day life and made science practical