Church History 1500 - 2000

1. Church History1500 - 2000 Ann T. Orlando 27 January 2005

2. Overview • Summary from last week • Beginnings of Reformation • Spread of Reformation • Council of Trent • European voyages of discovery and colonization • Enlightenment • Revolutions • Vatican I • Vatican II

3. Review from Last Week • Very weakened papacy • Avignon papacy • Counciliar movement; multiple claimants to papacy • Papacy ‘captured’ by wealthy Roman and Florentine families • Increasingly independent kings • 100 years war between France and England • Social disruption: plague, fall of Constantinople • Universities places of increasingly obscure scholastic disputations

4. The straw that broke the camel’s back: 1517, Albrecht of Mainz wants to be Archbishop Albrecht buys his archbishopric from Rome (sin of simony); Rome needs the money in part to help pay for rebuilding of St. Peters Rome authorizes the preaching of a special indulgence in Germany, with the money to go to Albrecht to repay him Martin Luther (1483-1546) Responds to this situation with 95 Thesis Go far beyond denouncing sin of simony and corruption; fundamentally calls into question Rome’s primary and theology of indulgences; denounces scholasticism German princes support Luther against Rome Note: 16th C reform movements attacked doctrine, not just practice as Medieval reform movements had done Beginnings of Reformation

5. Lutheran Theology • Sola Scriptura • Rejection of philosophical developments; Scripture is all that one needs • Scripture should be available to everyone, unmediated; Luther translates Bible into German • Return to original Biblical languages for Biblical study; reject any OT books not written in Hebrew (deutrocanonical books) • Sola Fides • Faith in Jesus Christ is necessary and sufficient for salvation • Universal priesthood of all believers • Sola gratia • Only God’s grace can save you • Only two sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist

6. John Calvin • Calvin (1509 - 1564) born in France, studied law • Accepted Luther’s maxim “Sola Scriptura, Sola Fides, Sola Gratia) and extended it • Accepted double predestination • Rejected real presence in Eucharist • Established a ‘holy’ city in Geneva • Calvinism, had an extensive influence on Protestant movement, especially in Scotland (Presbyterians), France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans) • Note that all reformers looked to Augustine as their ‘patron saint’

7. Catholic Response: Jesuits • Jesuits (Society of Jesus) founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) • NOT founded to counter Reformation; but charter put Jesuits on front lines against Reformers • Key points in early Jesuit charter (1541): • the vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignities; • special relationship to Pope • increased probations. The novitiate is prolonged from one year to two, with a third year, which usually falls after the priesthood. Candidates are moreover at first admitted to simple vows only, solemn vows coming much later on; • the Society does not keep choir; • it does not have a distinctive religious habit; • it is also said to have been the first order to undertake officially and by virtue of its constitutions active works such as the following: • foreign missions, at the pope's bidding; • the education of youth of all classes; • the instruction of the ignorant and the poor; • ministering to the sick, to prisoners, etc.

8. Catholic Response: Council of Trent • Lengthy, intermittent (1545-1563) • Purpose was both to address reform of practice and to uphold Catholic doctrine • Jesuits play a major theological role at Trent; encouraged explicit statement of Catholic doctrine in opposition to Protestant views • Scripture and tradition • Sacraments are effect through performance of sacramental action; affirmed 7 sacraments • Good works together with faith brings about salvation

9. Shift in European Culture16th-17th C • Rise of nations and a sense of national culture • Vernacular over Latin as official language • Official religion of a country is defined by the religion of the prince (Peace of Augsburg, 1555) • Definitively settled in West the question of ‘who is in charge’: the king • Development of the theory of ‘divine right of kings’

10. Expansion of European Culture16th – 17th C • Voyages of discovery • Driven by economics • Religion followed economics • Jesuits and Franciscans were primary Catholic missionary orders • Many saw colonization of new world (Western Hemisphere) as a way to escape turmoil of old world

11. Development of a new secular philosophy: Enlightenment • Science (as we now define it) as the basis for knowledge • Toleration (as we now believe in it) as the basis for religious action in world • Individual rights (as we now accept it), not individual duty, as basis for political systems and law • Human reason can figure it (anything, everything) out; is always making progress • Devalue history, tradition

12. Catholicism and Science • Galileo (1564-1642) controversy • Church silences Galileo because of his theory that earth revolved around sun • But the Jesuits also supported Keppler against Protestant attackers • Note part of Robert Bellarmine’s argument against Galileo was that his circular orbits were not consistent with observations; that epicycles explained astronomical observations better • Real question: Where is knowledge to be found? • Church rejects the argument that only science has access to truth; rejects attempts to relativize (trivialize) revelation • In 17th C Church is in good company: Newton, Boyle

13. American Revolution:New Political Structures • American Revolution (1776-1781), based on philosophy of John Locke (1632-1704) • Champion of individual rights • Religious toleration • Not clear (still isn’t) what is relation between religion and politics in America • Most States have official religion (First Amendment to Constitution only Congress will not establish a religion); see for instance John Adams’ Constitution of Massachusetts • Thomas Jefferson extends this to separation of Church and State (1802) • John Locke, while a champion of individual rights, also a believer in natural law as a subset of eternal law as basis for justice • Thomas Jefferson champions only individual rights; contractual view of justice • T. Jefferson also believed that a new Constitution should be written every 19 years (each generation); no permanence to law

14. French Revolution:Extreme Enlightenment • Impetus comes from group of 18 th C French philosophers: philosophes • Philosophes embraced John Locke and science; encouraged by American Revolution • Use it as a weapon against ‘throne and altar’ • ‘Smile of Reason’ turns into glare of tyranny • Individual rights and toleration get replaced by suspicion of ‘enemy of people’ and a new ‘religion’; active persecution of Church • Just before the Terror an important defector from Enlightenment: Voltaire; but a defection to skepticism (we really can’t know anything) and disengagement from society

15. 19th and 20th C New Nationalisms • 19th and early 20th C period of violent revolutions in Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Russia) • Also a period of violent revolutions and wars of independence throughout Western Hemisphere, Asia and Africa • Growth of labor movements opposed to oppression of laissez faire capitalism • Under the pretense of ‘will of the people’ new totalitarian regimes form in many countries • Marxism develops a theory of history and society that portrays religion as a phase that enlightened peoples will out grow • No child of 20th C can think that Enlightenment has led to a golden age: Shoah, gulags, Rwanda, World Wars, etc., etc., etc.

16. Catholicism’s Response • Vatican I (1866-1870) • Reaffirmed that we can have sure knowledge in faith and morals (infallibility of Pope, Thomism as official theology) • Reaffirmed that religion is important to society’s well being • Reaffirm the importance of natural law • Vatican II (1962-1965) • Toleration defined as toleration of religion against secular societies trying to prevent religious practice • Concern about new economic systems and materialism, whether Marxist or capitalist, that in fact undermine dignity of individual and families • Renewal of liturgical practices; often based upon early Christian practice