Rise of Militarism

1. Rise of Militarism From Democracy to Totalitarianism

2. Economic Development of Japan 大正時代 WW1 and Roaring 1920s

3. Full democracy Democratic institution(Form) Showa2 US rule 1960 Now LDP dominanceLack of policy debate 1945-51 ConstitutionLawsParliamentElectionCourt From Meiji to Hirohito DemocratizationNew constitution Military rises 1931 Democracy movement, Party cabinet 1926 Hirohito 1937 Defeat War Male suffrage 1925 Showa1 Taisho ConstitutionParliament 1889 Fascism 1937-45 Meiji Edo Political fights Pure dictatorship Reform vs conservatism, big vs small government, other policy debates Political competition

4. JAPAN’S PRE-WAR RELATIONS WITH THE USA • 1) Japan was trying to expand in the Pacific. Did the USA have an unquestionable right to criticize Japan for this? Why/Why not? • No. The USA too, had holdings in the Pacific during the 1920s and 30s. She had holdings in territories there including the Philippines, Hawaii, and Guam. • 2) What were the basic terms of: • The Five Power Treaty? • The Five-Power Treaty called for the five powers; the USA, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy to keep a set tonnage ratio of warships, which allowed the USA and Britain the joint-biggest share of tonnage –with Japan coming second. • b) The Four Power Treaty? • The USA, Britain, France, and Japan agreed to consult with each other in the event of a future crisis before taking any action. • c) The Nine Power Treaty? • The treaty promised each of its signatories; the United States, Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, and China would respect China’s territorial integrity. China in return promised by this treaty not to discriminate against any countries doing business there. • 3) What was the Kellogg-Briand Pact? • The Kellogg-Briand Pact was a pact signed initially by fifteen nations – and then more nations later, including the USA, Britain, China, and Japan – to outlaw war.

5. JAPAN’S PRE-WAR RELATIONS WITH THE USA 4) What was the Stimson Doctrine? For what did this create the potential? The Stimson Doctrine (named after Secretary Stimson) was issued in early 1932, and it declared that the USA would not recognize any agreement between Japan and China that violated American rights or agreements which the USA had signed. Japans attack on Manchuria was such a violation of the terms of the Nine-Power Treaty – which of course the USA had also signed. This created the potential for a new naval arms race into which would inevitably draw in the Japanese, but it did not change the Manchurian situation. 5) What were the findings of the Lytton Report? The Lytton Report blamed the attack on both Japanese militarism and Chinese nationalism. The report also said however, that it would not recognize the new Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo as it violated China’s rights and the Nine-Power Treaty. 6) Who did the truce between Japan and China leave in charge of Manchuria? China and Japan signed a truce – but it was one that left Japan very firmly in charge of Manchuria.

6. Society, Economy, Diplomacy: 1910s-20s • WW1 brought a huge export-led boom to Japan. • This solved fiscal and Balance of payment problems ( BOP ) for the moment). • The bubble burst in 1920 and a recession period began. • Foreign direct investments ( FDI) and import substitution in heavy industries proceeded, and new zaibatsu emerged. • Taisho Democracy and the rise of social movements (labor, farmers, women, “outcasts,” socialism) • Shidehara Diplomacy—use non-military means (diplomacy) to secure trade benefits, Japan-US friendship and Chinese interests.

7. Real GNE Growth (5-year moving average) 1920s GNE ( Gross National Expenditure) = • WW1 Bubble burst and recessionary period begins • Machinery, chemical, heavy industries expands • Electrification (hydraulic power generation) rises WW1 Estimate by Ohkawa, Takamatsu, Yamamoto

8. World War I and Export-led Boom • Export-led demand pushed up prices, profits and production—artificial acceleration of import substitution, esp. in machinery and chemicals. • BoP crisis (gold reserve loss) was solved. • Narikin emerged (Suzuki, Ship Narikins). They spent money on big villas, parties, women. Production Trade (bil yen) Ship Narikin Domestic Supply Ratio Industrial production

9. New Zaibatsu (Konzern) • Heavy & chemical industries (not banks, textiles, trade) • Backed by political connection and support • Active investment in Korea and Manchuria (NE China)

10. NissanKonzern (Zaibatsu) • Nissan Konzern was created by Yoshisuke Ayukawa(1880-1967) by restructuring failed Kuhara Zaibatsu. • Renamed to Nihon Sangyo (Japan Industry), a holding company that aggressively raises funds by public offering of shares. • Core firms were Japan Mine [JX] & Hitachi. Later, Kokusan Kogyo [Hitachi Metal], Nissan Motor & Manchuria Heavy Industry [dissolved after WW2] were added. • Strong in manufacturing, but weak in trade & finance. Few group firms inherited the name except Nissan Motor Corp. Main Member Companies of Nissan-Hitachi Group Today

11. By 1925 most small industries had been crushed by monopolies of giant corporations headed by extremely powerful and rich families. • These giant corporations, known as zaibatsu, dominated the Japanese economy until the end of World War II. • Powerful zaibatsu families included the Mitsuis, the Iwasakis (Mitsubishi), the Yasudas and Kichizaemon Sumitomo. The Mitsubishi conglomerate was founded by Iwasaki Yataro, born near Kochi on Shikoku in 1834.

12. Sumitomo • The Sumitomo family of 600 firms included Sumitomo Corp., Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Sumitomo Bank, Sumitomo Chemical, Sumitomo Electric Industry, Sumitomo Trust and Banking, Sumitomo Rubber and NEC.  • Sumitomo was founded in the 17th century by a warrior monk named Masatomo Sumitomo, who gave up the monastic life and opened up a medicine shop and bookstore and later expanded into copper after Sumitomo leaned European copper refining techniques and acquired a copper mine on the island of Shikoku.

13. Major FDI Firms in 1910s-30s (contd.) Compared with Meiji Period, INPUT • The number of US FDI increases. Note that US invested into Japan • FDI in automobile, electrical, machinery. • Zaibatsu plays key role in FDI partnership or subsequent take-over. At the same time, Japan’s outward FDI begins: OUTPUT • FDI to China: textiles (Shanghai, Qingdao), steel (Anshan) • FDI to Korea: heavy chemical industries Source: S.J.Bytheway (2005), pp.166-169

14. Major FDI Firms in 1910s-30s: Internationalism in Japan Source: S.J.Bytheway (2005), pp.166-169

15. Control relation Japanese Automotive Manufacturers Dissolution Toyota Daihatsu Hino Nissan Mitsubishi Honda Suzuki Mazda Isuzu Subaru 1937 1998 Corolla1966 Model AA1936 1907 Mira1980 2001 Midget1957 1941 1910 Skelton Bus 1977 TGE-A 1917 Renault 1999 1933 March1982 Fairlady Z 1969 2016 1970 1917 Pajero1982 Mitsubishi Type A1917 1948 Civic1972 Supercub C1001958 GM GM 19982000 20062008 1920 Coreda1955 Alto1979 1920 1979 2015 in steps R360 Coupe1960 Matsuda Go1931 F GM GM Ford 1971 2006 1937 1916 Elf1959 TX40 Truck1932 1917 1953 2005 1999 Sambar 1961 Subaru360 1958 GM GM

16. Shidehara Diplomacy: What was it ? Kijuro Shidehara, 1872-1951Foreign Minister, 1924-27, 1929-31 Prime Minister 1945-46 His policy was more moderate than before or after him • Maintain good relations with US and UK • Respect Washington Naval Disarmament Treaty (1921-22) • Hamaguchi Cabinet signs London Naval Disarmament Treaty despite objection from military (1930) • No military intervention in China; secure Japan’s economic interest through diplomacy and negotiation • When China protests and resists, his diplomacy breaks down • Domestically, criticized as Coward Diplomacy • Failed to stop Manchurian Incident (1931) started by Kantogun (Japanese Army stationed in China)

17. The Militarists Take Over In Japan Shidehara Diplomacy was critiqued by the traditionalist, war-oriented , right supremacists. Since the industry was on the rise, Japan sustained a comprehensive growth of proletariat. Hence, birth of the leftism. All of a sudden, Japan found itself in a struggle between liberals and leftists on one side, and ultra conservatives on the other. It was against this backdrop that Emperor Hirohito ascended the Japanese throne in 1926.

18. 1. Extreme nationalism -the use of force to solve the problems 2. Emphasis on loyalty and obedience -to the superiors and the emperor -even sacrificed their lives 3. Anti- communism -communism (equality) endangered Japan’s unity. 4. Promotion of foreign expansion -to maintain her military power. -to gain natural resources Pan Asianism -Japanese the best of all Asians -duty to fight against the west and liberate them from the west. -”Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” DefiningFeatures of Japanese Militarism

19. Militaristic Tradition • -traditional respect of men of sword • -strong tradition of unquestioned obedience to authority • -spirit of Bushido • “Might is Right” • Meiji Constitution gave autonomy to the armed force • The army and navy had the right of direct access to the Emperor • Victories in the wars • Successful modernizations • Emperor in the highest position • Growth of ultra nationalism

20. Metamorphosis :Democracy – Totalitarianism ( 14 years ) The first commoner prime minister, Hara Kei in 1918 -the beginning of democracy/party rule -universal suffrage in 1925 ended when liberal prime minister , Inukaiwas assassinated in 1932

21. Why was democracy so appealing to Japanese? • The victory of democratic allies in the WWI • The declining influence of Genro • Financial support given by Zaibatsu and Landowners • Political vacuum 4. Emperor Taisho had brain disease

22. Prof. Tatsukichi Minobe (1873-1948), Tokyo Univ. <Organ Theory of the Emperor>-The state, as a legal entity, has the sovereignty.-The emperor is the highest organ of the state, and operates under Constitution (not unlimited power)<Justification for party cabinets> (Article 55)-Cabinet must take collective responsibility  Same political party-Imperial orders must have Minister’s signature  Cabinet’s power Prof. Sakuzo Yoshino (1878-1933), Tokyo Univ. Democracy develops in 3 steps to achieve results:(1) Party cabinet where the largest party forms government (2) Universal suffrage, to expand voter base (3) Social policies, to directly improve people’s lives Yoshino proposed minpon shugi民本主義to promote democracy under Meiji Constitution where Emperor had sovereignty.

23. Why did Democracy decline? • A. Disunity within the parties • -their origins in protest against Meiji oligarchy hard to • have positive measures in Taisho Period. • -bargains made with powerful interests outside the Diet •  Tended to be vote winning and fund raising • -all decisions made behind the scene • -mutual accusation of the parties against each other • B. Corruption in the party government • two parties-Seiyukai and Kenseikai/ Minseito • Link with Zaibatsu –business backing • was unstable out of their self interest • -> people despised the parties for its corruption

24. Taisho Democracy – Political Development Anti-partyconservatistsgenro, military, bureaucrats Pro-Constitution 3-Party Cabinet 1924 Yamagata, Katsura X -Universal suffrage, 1925-Army budget cuts-Shidehara Diplomacy Cooperation & fightsAlternating governments Seiyukai PartyBig spending for securing rural votes RikkenSeiyukai Party Saionji, Hara Army’s misuse of power, 1913 Navy’s bribery scandal, 1914 Reform Club Opposed to universal suffrage Rice Riots, 1918 Kenseikai (Minsei Party) Belt-tightening, workers rights 1913 1914 Popular demonstration surrounding Parliament to protect constitution

25. Why did Democracy decline? C. Party government did not enjoy mass support • -disunities and corruption • -failed to cultivate the roots of liberalism and democracy • -peasants were discontented with party businessmen  Gave the militarists support

26. Why did Democracy decline? D. Economic failures in 1920s - 1927, Bank Crisis led to the collapse of many small enterprises -1929, Depression led to 50% drop in export trade and 3 million Unemployment E. Weak stand of party government in foreign affairs -weak kneed diplomacy a. reduction in size of the armed force b. Shidehara’s policy of improving relations with China c. Unhappy with the 1930 London Naval Disarmament Conference

27. Why did militarism rise?To satisfy internal economic needs • Lack of food • Lack of natural resources, e.g. oil, coal • Lack of capital to buy resources • Hampered by US economic • Protectionism Japanese export dropped

28. Western discrimination against Japan • Paris Peace Conference • -Refused to put clause of “Racial • Equality” into the Constitution of the League. • -condemned the invasion of Shandong Why did Militarism Rise?

29. Western discrimination against Japan • Washington Conference -Japan returned Shandong • -Her tonnage of capital ships were limited. • Exclusion Act 1924 -banned Japanese immigration • London Conference 1930 -limited the ratio of cruisers between Britain • Japan and the US • Why didMilitarism Rise?

30. Impact of totalitarianism in Europe/Favourable conditions Why didMilitarism Rise? • Great Depression • Totalitarianism in Europe-Italy, Germany • Unity with China after the Northern • Expedition 1928 • Opposition of Zhang Xueliang • Revival of Russian power

31. The Militarists Take Over In Japan In 1925, universal male suffrage was introduced i.e. all men were now allowed to vote in Japan. The left pushed for further democratic reforms but as they did so, right-wing politicians pushed for legislation to ban organizations that they felt threatened the state by measures such as wealth distribution or political change.

32. The Militarists Take Over In Japan The dichotomy between right and left forced so –called the ‘Peace Preservation Law’ of 1925 –a law which greatly reduced political freedom. The left disintegrated after this and as it did so, ultra-nationalism prevailed. Nationalism that originated at the end of the nineteenth century, but now evolved into ultra-nationalism. During the Meiji period industrialization, education, centralization and military conscription moved loyalties from feudalism to loyalty to the Emperor-personified state.

33. The Militarists Take Over In Japan The 1922 Five Power Naval Limitation Agreement saw western powers criticize Japan’s imperial ambitions and limit her military expansion. The 1924 Japanese Exclusion Act banned Japanese immigration to the USA.

34. Following the Naval Treaties • Japan's economic problems made a naval build up nearly impossible . • Japan realized the need to compete with the United States on an economic rather than a military basis, rapprochement became inevitable. • Japan adopted a more neutral attitude toward the civil war in China, dropped efforts to expand its hegemony into China proper, and joined the United States, Britain, and France in encouraging Chinese self-development.

35. Duringthisperiod • Nationalists and militarists alike looked to the past for inspiration. • Delving into ancient myths about the Japanese and the Emperor in particular being directly descended from the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu Omikami, they exhorted the people to restore a past racial and spiritual purity lost in recent times. • They were indoctrinated from an early age to revere the Emperor as a living deity, and to see war as an act that could purify the self, the nation, and ultimately the whole world. Within this framework, the supreme sacrifice of life itself was regarded as the purest of accomplishments." ***

36. The Militarists Take Over In Japan US actions were seen by Japanese ultra-nationalists as provocative and their position became more xenophobic, emperor-centered, and Asia-centric. They portrayed the USA, Britain, China, and the Netherlands (or ‘ABCD Powers’) as a threat to the Japanese Empire.

37. Kellogg-Briand Pact • In 1928 Japan joined fourteen other nations in signing the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which denounced "recourse to war for the solution of international controversies." • The London Naval Conference in 1930 came at a time of economic recession in Japan, and the Japanese government was amenable to further, cost-saving naval reductions.

38. Effects of the London Naval Treaty • Although Prime Minister HamaguchiOsachihad civilian support, he bypassed the Naval General Staff and approved the signing of the London Naval Treaty. • Hamaguchi'ssuccess was pyrrhic ( ready for war dance): ultranationalists called the treaty a national surrender, and navy and army officials got themselves ready for defense of their budgets. • Hamaguchihimself died from wounds suffered in an assassination attempt in November 1930, and the treaty, with its complex formula for ship tonnage and numbers aimed at restricting the naval arms race, had loopholes that made it ineffective by 1938.

39. The Militarists Take Over In Japan In 1930 Prime Minister Osachi was assassinated by an ultra-nationalist and by the summer of 1931, the military was gaining more and more influence over the government and the army invaded Manchuria and took over its entire border region.

40. The Militarists Take Over In Japan • The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Japan hard. • Japan suffered from economic collapse, rapidly increased prices, high unemployment, decreased exports, and social unrest. • The civilian government was ineffective in its actions to address these problems.

41. The Militarists Take Over In Japan In recent years Japan’s government had applied western style economic policies, but these were now ineffective, and even those who had not supported the military -and even hated it before -looked to them as an alternative. This was a parallel to events in Germany taking place at the same time for the same reason.

42. Rise of Militarism • The rise of Japanese militarism has been blamed on hardships caused a worldwide depression, reaction to anti-Japanese sentiments in China, numerous scandals, flaws on the Meiji constitution that paved the way for the military's rise to power and other factors. • Some historians have argued that Japan's imperial expansion after 1914 was the result of a male “youth bulge."

43. The Diet (parliament) became a rubber-stamp body for the nationalist party. • According to the Library of Congress: Ultra nationalism was characteristic of right-wing politicians and conservative military men since the inception of the Meiji Restoration, contributing greatly to the pro war politics of the 1870s. • Disenchanted former samurai had established patriotic societies and intelligence-gathering organizations, such as the Gen'yosha (Black Ocean Society, founded in 1881) and its later offshoot, the Kokuryukai (Black Dragon Society, or Amur River Society, founded in 1901).

44. Army Minister Sadao Araki, January 23, 1933  • The spirit of the Japanese nation is, by its nature,a thing that must be propagated over the seven seas and extended over the five continents. Anything that may hinder it must be abolished, even by force.

45. Read the Article • Taisho Democracy • What were the main similarities and differences between Meiji and Taisho ? • What can be said about Hirohito ?

46. Other Social Movements in Taisho • Emergence of new middle mass(professionals, salaried workers) • Universal (male) election (1925) • Labor movement and May Day (1920) • Landless farmers’ riots and formation of farmers’ union (1922) • Women’s movement--Seitosha (Blue Stockings Society, 1912), New Women’s Society (1920) • Zenkoku Suiheisha (National Level Society, 1922) to fight discrimination against “outcast” people • Rise of socialism and Marxism Universal suffrage movement Voters/Population

47. The Cherry Blossom Society, or Sakurakai • The cherry blossom carries significant symbolic meaning in Japan. • In Buddhist cultural tradition, the flower, with its short blooming period, expresses the brief nature of life. • Sakurakai adopted this as a name not only to connect its nationalist ideology to the symbol of the nation but also to give its activities spiritual meaning. • Founded by Hashimoto Kingoro, a leader in the Japanese Imperial Army, Sakurakai advocated military rebellion and “Showa Restoration,” which would free Emperor Hirohito from all political party affiliations. • The Cherry Blossom Society believed the political parties established during Taisho were to blame for Japan’s current economic struggles, and their elimination was the first step in strengthening the nation.

48. Causes • Due to the postwar production slowdown, increased trade barriers and tariffs imposed by the West, and economic strains caused by the Great Kanto Earthquake, Japan fell into an economic depression two years before the global Great Depression began in 1930.

49. Some GD Results • Thirty-seven banks were forced to close after Japanese citizens tried to cash in government-issued earthquake bonds that had been sold to raise funds for reconstruction. • The economic crisis brought down the civilian government and brought to power the zaibatsu, family-controlled businesses that held monopolies within the Japanese Empire and kept close ties, and influence, with the civilian government. • When the Great Depression began, Japan was economically and politically vulnerable and increasingly unstable. • Like other nations during such fragile times, Japan saw a rise in political groups promising to fix the problems of the nation. Italy, Germany

50. Sakurakai • Sakurakai began with only a few members in September 1930. It quickly grew in size and attracted several hundred ultranationalist officers from the army’s general staff headquarters in Tokyo. • In October 1931, Sakurakai attempted their first of two coup d’états, or overthrows of the government. • Both efforts ultimately failed. • Hashimoto was forced to retire, and the group had to disband. • Despite these setbacks, other like-minded nationalist factions arose, and the military continued to play a dominant role in the political affairs of the nation.