Chapter 7: Thinking, Language & Intelligence

1. Chapter 7: Thinking, Language & Intelligence

2. Learning Outcomes • Define thinking and the various concepts involved in thinking. • Describe how language develops.

3. Learning Outcomes • Identify the concept of intelligence and the techniques used to measure intelligence. • Describe the controversy surrounding intelligence testing.

4. Thinking

5. Thinking • What is thinking? • Attending to information, • Representing it mentally, • Reasoning about it • Making judgments and decisions about it • Thinking is conscious

6. Concepts • Mental categories used to group objects, relations, events, abstractions or qualities that have common properties • Hierarchies • Used to organize concepts

7. Organization of Concepts into Hierarchies

8. Concepts • Prototypes • Good examples of a category of concept • Exemplars • Positive and Negative instances • Overextension

9. What are the next two letters in this series? • O T T F F S S E _ _

10. Problem Solving • Features of understanding a problem • Parts relate to one another in a meaningful way • Elements of mental representation correspond to the elements of the problem in outer world • Storehouse of background knowledge

11. Algorithms • Specific procedure for solving a type of problem • Yield correct answers if the right formula is used • Systematic random search • Each possible solution is tested according to a particular set of rules

12. Heuristic • Shortcuts; mental rules of thumb used to solve a problem • Means-end analysis • Evaluate and reduce difference between the current situation and goal • Analogies • Refer to a previous problem to solve a new problem

13. What rule governs this list of numbers? • 8, 5, 4, 9, 1, 7, 6, 3, 2, 0

14. Factors that Affect Problem Solving • Expertise • Experts use parallel processing; novices use serial processing • Mental Sets • Tendency to use an approach that was previously successful with similar problem • Insight • Sudden perception permitting the solution

15. Truth or Fiction? • Only humans can use insight to solve problems.

16. Truth or Fiction? • Only humans can use insight to solve problems. • FICTION!

17. Bismarck Uses a Cognitive Map to Claim His Just Desserts

18. Factors that Affect Problem Solving • Incubation • Stand back from a problem for a while; solution may come in a flash of insight • Functional Fixedness • Tendency to think of an object in terms of its familiar function

19. Heuristics in Decision Making • Representativeness heuristic • Make judgments about events according to the population of events that they appear to represent • Availability heuristic • Estimate of probability is based on examples of relevant events

20. Heuristics in Decision Making • Anchoring and adjustment heuristic • First estimate serves as an anchor • With new information we make adjustments but remain in the proximity of the first estimate

21. Factors that Affect Decision Making • Framing effect • Context in which information is presented affects decision making • Overconfidence • Unaware of flimsiness of assumptions • Work to bring about results that fit our judgments • Forget information counter to our judgment • Self-fulfilling prophecies

22. Language

23. Communication by Nonhumans • African Grey Parrots • Apes • Genetically show some ability to use language • Use of symbols to communicate

24. Language • Communication of information by means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar

25. Properties of Language • Semanticity • Sounds or signs of a language have meaning • Infinite creativity • Capacity to create rather than imitate sentences • Displacement • Capacity to communicate in another time or place

26. Language and Cognition • Language is not necessary for thinking • Concepts can be understood without knowing the word for the concept

27. Language and Culture • Linguistic-relativity hypothesis • Language structures the way we perceive the world • Criticism of linguistic-relativity hypothesis • Images and abstract logical propositions may be used as units of thought • Range of concepts represent priority of the language not cognitive limitation

28. Language Development • Prelinguistic vocalizations • Crying, cooing, babbling • All children babble the same sounds (even deaf children) • By 9 – 10 months foreign sounds are dropped • First word is spoken within the range of 8 and 18 months

29. Truth or Fiction? • Crying is a child’s first use of language.

30. Truth or Fiction? • Crying is a child’s first use of language. • FICTION!

31. Development of Grammar • Holophrase • Single words that express complex meanings • Telegraphic speech • Two-word sentences • Grammatically correct • Sequence of emergence of various two-word sentences is universal

32. Development of Grammar • Overregulation • Application of regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns • Between 7- to 9-years • Children realize words can have more than one meaning

33. Truth or Fiction? • Young children say things like “Daddy goed away” and “Mommy sitted down” because they do understand rules of grammar.

34. Truth or Fiction? • Young children say things like “Daddy goed away” and “Mommy sitted down” because they do understand rules of grammar. • TRUE!

35. Nature and Nurture in Language Development • Learning Theory • Imitation and reinforcement • Social cognitive perspective • Parent serve as models

36. Nature and Nurture in Language Development • Infant-directed speech • slower and higher pitched • brief with key words at end of sentence • focus on naming objects • speak for child • Children prefer IDS and it encourages vocalization

37. Nature and Nurture in Language Development • Nativist Approach • Innate factors cause children to attend to and perceive language in certain ways

38. Nativist Approach to Language Development • Psycholinguistic theory • Language acquisition involves interaction of environmental influences and inborn tendency to acquire language • Language acquisition device (LAD) • Represents the inborn tendency • Prepares nervous system to learn grammar • Universal grammar

39. Intelligence

40. Intelligence • The underlying ability to understand the world and cope with its challenges • Tied to achievements such as academic performance and occupational status

41. Factor Theories of Intelligence • Intelligence is made up of a number of mental abilities (factors) • Spearman’s g factor • General intelligence • s factor represents specific intelligence • Thurstone’s nine specific factors • Primary mental abilities

42. Primary Mental Abilities, According to Thurstone

43. Theory of Multiple Intelligences • Howard Gardner • Number of different intelligences • Criticism – do all represent intelligence or talent?

44. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence • Robert Sternberg • Analytical • Academic ability • Creative • Ability to cope with novel situations and generate multiple solutions to problems • Practical • “Street smarts”

45. Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence

46. Truth or Fiction? • “Street smarts” are a sign of intelligence.

47. Truth or Fiction? • “Street smarts” are a sign of intelligence. • TRUE!

48. Emotional Intelligence • Intrapersonal and interpersonal skills • Self-insight and self-control • Allows for coping with stress, depression, and aggressive behavior

49. Creativity and Intelligence • Creative people • Do things that are novel and useful • Take risks • Defy limits • Appreciate art and music • Relationship between intelligence test scores and standard measures of creativity is only moderate.

50. Truth or Fiction? • Creative people are highly intelligent. • Highly intelligent people are creative.