Chapter 8 Cognition, Intelligence, and Creativity

1. Chapter 8Cognition, Intelligence, and Creativity

2. The Nature of Thought • Thinking: internal ________ of external __________. • Cognition: Mentally processing information (images, concepts, etc.); thinking • Images: picture-like mental representations • Concept: Generalized idea representing a class of related objects or events • Language: Words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that are used for thinking and communication

3. Types of Mental Images • Stored Image: Mental image kept in long-term memory (LTM) and retrieved when appropriate • Created Image: Image that has been assembled or invented rather than remembered • 3-D, rotated in space, size may change. • Kinesthetic Image: Created from produced, remembered, or imagined muscular sensations

4. Figure 8.1 FIGURE 8.1 Imagery in thinking. (Top) Subjects were shown a drawing similar to (a) and drawings of how (a) would look in other positions, such as (b) and (c). Subjects could recognize (a) after it had been “rotated” from its original position. However, the more (a) was rotated in space, the longer it took to recognize it. This result suggests that people actually formed a three-dimensional image of (a) and rotated the image to see if it matched. (Shepard, 1975.) (Bottom) Try your ability to manipulate mental images: Picture each of these shapes as a piece of paper that can be folded to make a cube. After they have been folded, on which cubes do the arrow tips meet?

5. Concept Formation • Process of classifying world into meaningful categories • Positive Instance: Object or event that belongs to the concept class • Negative Instance: Object or event that does not belong to the concept class • Conceptual Rule: Guidelines for deciding whether objects or events belong to concept class • Prototypes/ Ideal Models

6. Figure 8.3 FIGURE 8.3 When does a cup become a bowl or a vase? Deciding if an object belongs to a conceptual class is aided by relating it to a prototype, or ideal example. Subjects in one experiment chose number 5 as the “best” cup.

7. Concept Formation (cont'd) • Conjunctive Concept: Class of objects that are defined by the presence of two or more common features (e.g., object is pink and soft) • Relational Concept: Based on how an object relates to something else or how its features relate to one another • Disjunctive Concept: Objects that have at least one of several possible features; either-or concept (strike in baseball)

8. More Concept Issues and Terms • Denotative Meaning: Exact definition of a word or concept • Connotative Meaning: Emotional or personal meaning of a concept

9. Figure 8.4 FIGURE 8.4 Use of prototypes in concept identification. Even though its shape is unusual, item (a) can be related to a model (an ordinary set of pliers) and thus recognized. But what are items (b) and (c)? If you don’t recognize them, look ahead to figure 8.6.

10. Figure 8.6 FIGURE 8.6 Context can substitute for a lack of appropriate prototypes in concept identification.

11. Language • What is the role of language in thinking? • A: Allows events to be _______________ into ___________ for _________________ manipulation. • Encoding: Translating information into symbols that are easy to manipulate and understand • Semantics: Study of meanings in language • Phoneme: Basic speech sounds • Morpheme: Speech sounds collected into meaningful units, like syllables or words

12. Figure 8.8 FIGURE 8.6 Context can substitute for a lack of appropriate prototypes in concept identification.

13. Language (cont'd) • Grammar: Set of rules for making sounds into words or words into sentences • Syntax: Rules for word order in sentences • Productivity: Ability of language to generate new thoughts or ideas • American Sign Language (ASL): Language used by deaf and hearing-impaired people

14. Problem Solving • Mechanical Solution: Achieved by trial and error or by rote • Understanding: • Algorithm: Learned set of rules that always leads to the correct solution • General Solution: States the requirements for success but not in enough detail for further action • Random Search Strategy: All possibilities are tried, more or less randomly • Functional Solution: • Heuristic: Strategy for identifying and evaluating problem solutions

15. Insight • When an answer appears suddenly in problem solving (a-ha learning) • Involves three abilities • Selective Encoding: Selecting information that is relevant to a problem while ignoring distractions • Selective Combination: Connecting seemingly unrelated bits of useful information • Selective Comparison: Comparing new problems with old information or with problems already solved

16. Problem solving can also be blocked: Fixations • Fixations: Tendency to repeat wrong solutions and to “fixate” on them, or to become blind to alternatives • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses (functions) for familiar objects or for things that were used in a particular way

17. Barriers to Problem Solving • Emotional Barriers: Inhibition and fear of making a fool of oneself or of making a mistake • Cultural Barriers: Belief that fantasy is a waste and feelings and humor have no place in problem solving • Learned Barriers: Taboos; staying with conventional uses • Perceptual Barriers: Habits leading to a failure to identify important elements of a problem

18. Artificial Intelligence (AI) • Computers (and their programs) that perform human-like problem solving or intelligent responding (Deep Blue, the chess-playing supercomputer) • Computer Simulations: Programs that attempt to duplicate human behavior, especially thinking, problem solving, or decision making • Expert Systems: Computer programs that respond as an expert human would • Responding like a chess Grand Master • Organized Knowledge: Systematic information • Acquired Strategies: Learned tactics

19. Defining Intelligence • Global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment • Operational Definition: Specifies what procedures we will use to measure a concept

20. Some Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Terms • Norm: Average score for a designated group of people • Chronological Age: Person’s age in years • Mental Age: Average intellectual performance

21. More Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Terms • Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Intelligence index; original definition; mental age divided by chronological age, then multiplied by 100 • Deviation IQ: Scores based on a person’s standing in his or her age group; how far above or below average a person’s score is, relative to other scores • Average IQ in the U.S.: 100

22. Wechsler Tests • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test, 3rd Edition (WAIS-III): Adult intelligence test that rates verbal and performance intelligence and abilities • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition (WISC-IV): Downscaled version of the WAIS-III; for children from 6 years to 16 years, 11 months, 30 days • Performance Intelligence: Nonverbal intelligence • Verbal Intelligence: Language or symbol-oriented intelligence • Normal (Bell-shaped) Curve: Most scores fall close to the average, and very few are found at the extremes

23. IQ Research Results, and a Few More Terms to Know • A strong correlation (about .50) exists between IQ and school grades, but not a measure of ___________. • IQ is NOTa good predictor of success in art, music, writing, dramatics, science and leadership. • Men and women do NOT appear to differ in overall intelligence. • Giftedness/ Genius: Having a high IQ (usually above 130) or special talents or abilities (playing Mozart at age 5). • Giftedness/ Mental Retardation: Having a low IQ

24. Mental Retardation: Some Definitions • Presence of a developmental disability or an IQ score below 70; a significant impairment of adaptive behavior also figures into the definition • Adaptive Behavior: Basic skills such as dressing, eating, working, hygiene; necessary for self-care • Familial Retardation: Mild retardation that occurs in homes that have inadequate nutrition, intellectual stimulation, medical care, and emotional support

25. Organic Causes of Mental Retardation • Related to physical disorders • Birth Injuries: Lack of oxygen to the brain, for example • Fetal Damage: Congenital problem; prenatal damage from disease, infection, or drug abuse by the mother • Metabolic Disorders: Disorder in metabolism; affects energy use and production in the body • Genetic Abnormalities: Abnormality in the genes, such as missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes

26. Gardner’s Theory of Eight Multiple Intelligences • Language: Used for thinking by lawyers, writers, comedians • Logic and Math: Used by scientists, accountants, programmers • Visual and Spatial Thinking: Used by engineers, inventors, aviators • Music: Used by composers, musicians, music critics

27. Gardner’s Theory of Eight Multiple Intelligences (cont'd) • Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills: Used by dancers, athletes, surgeons • Intrapersonal Skills (Self-Knowledge): Used by poets, actors, ministers • Interpersonal Skills (Social Abilities): Used by psychologists, teachers, politicians • Naturalistic Skills (Ability to Understand Natural Environment): Used by biologists, organic farmers

28. Creative Thinking • Inductive Thought: Going from specific facts or observations to general principles • Deductive Thought: Going from general principles to specific situations

29. How to “Rate” Creative Thoughts • Fluency: Total number of suggestions you can make • Flexibility: Number of times you shift from one class of possible uses to another • Originality: How novel or unusual or unique your suggestions are • Convergent Thinking: Many thoughts or variations converging on a single answer; conventional thinking • Divergent Thinking: Many possibilities developing from one starting point

30. Stages of Creative Thought • Orientation: Defining the problem • Preparation: Gaining as much information as possible • Incubation: The problem, while not appearing to be actively worked on, is still “cooking” in the background • Illumination: The “a-ha” experience; rapid insight into the solution • Verification: Testing and critically evaluating the solution

31. Logic and Intuition • Intuition: Quick, impulsive thought that does not make use of formal reasoning • Representativeness Heuristic: Giving a choice greater weight if it seems to be representative of what is already known • Base Rate: Underlying probability of an event • Framing: The way a problem is stated or the way it is structured

32. How to Enhance Creativity • Break mental sets and challenge assumptions. • Mental Set: Tendency to perceive or respond in a certain way that blinds us to possible solutions. • Define problems broadly. • Restate the problem in different ways. • Allow time for incubation.

33. How to Enhance Creativity (cont'd) • Seek varied input. • Look for analogies. • Take sensible risks. • Delay evaluation • Brainstorm