Western Civilization I HIS-101

1. Western Civilization IHIS-101 UNIT 1 – Origins of Western Civilizations (Prehistory to 1700 BCE)

2. Stone Age Background • “Pre-History” started roughly 3-4 million years ago • Early man and archeological evidence • Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years ago • Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago - 8,000 BCE) • Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago) • Deliberately buried their dead • Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago) • Possibility of abstract thought • Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE) • Homo sapiens sapiens • Finely crafted tools • Cave paintings at Lascaux

3. Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux

4. Upper Paleolithic Age • Period of the “Ice Age” • Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around 60˚F in the summer and 30˚F in the winter • There was a jump in human advancement • Sophisticated figurative artwork • Evidence of religious beliefs • More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing needles, and arrowheads • Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies • Small bands of people, constantly moving in search of food

5. Paleolithic or “Old Stone Age” • Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies: • They lacked material wealth • There were no societal hierarchies • All were hunters and gatherers • Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation • There was a lack of specialization • By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds left the Near East region • The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild grains to grow

6. Neolithic or “New Stone Age” • Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE) • Intense social and technological development • Development of managed food production (agriculture) • Included the domestication of plants and animals • Gradual process with revolutionary consequences • In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent • Surplus food and storage • This lead to an increase in population • Also lead to development of animal domestication

7. Neolithic or “New Stone Age” • Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent settlements • This led to the rise of villages and small cities • This helped to stabilize society • There was the rapid intensification of trade • Exchange of commodities and new ideas • Increase in wealth • Social stratification • Rise of a new class of social elites • There was also the rise of specialization • Included the rise of priestly class

8. Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in Switzerland

9. Civilization • Civilization: • A complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements • Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE • Historians disagree as to why it came about • Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China • “Challenge and Response” theory • Challenges forced human beings to make the necessary efforts that led to the rise of civilization • This could be due to material forces surpluses such as food • Or it could be due to non-material forces such as religion

10. Civilization • Characteristics of civilization: • Development of agricultural skills • Rise of specialization • A division of labor • Urban revolution • New political structures including government bureaucracies and militaries • Distinct religious structures • Advanced technical skills were developed, including the use of bronze tools • Complex economies, including long-distance trade • New social structures based on economic power • Development of writing

12. Civilization in Mesopotamia • Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys • Desert region • River flood enriches the soil near the rivers • Flooding was very unpredictable • Development of irrigation systems • Governments were theocracies • Priests and priestesses had great power • Temples owned much of the city land and livestock • Over time, they had to share their power with kings • The kings received their power from the gods and they were seen as agents of the gods

13. Civilization in Mesopotamia • Economy was primarily agricultural • Industry and commerce rose in importance as well • Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly • Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper, tin, aromatic woods, fruit trees • Mesopotamian society was broken into three classes • Nobles • This included royal and priestly officials and their families • Commoners (free citizens) • 90% of population were farmers • Slaves • The richest people tended to own the most and talented slaves

14. The Sumerians

15. Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE) • The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia • Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE) • Sophisticated irrigation systems • Intense temple-building • Development of a religious structure • Included the rise of a priestly class • Priests were responsible for managing economic resources • Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE) • The first city-states start to develop • Temple building more prominent and elaborate • Writing also developed during this period

16. Sumerian clay ball with tokens

17. Development of Writing • “Token and ball” system • Objects would be represented with clay tokens • Would then be used in a transaction • This was later replaced with writing on clay tablets • Pictographs • Earliest writing systems • Symbols that resembled the physical object they represented • Evolved into representing ideas as well as objects • Eventually represented a particular phonetic sound

18. Development of Writing • Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE) • Abstract writing • Used a durable reed stylus • Cuneus – Wedge shaped impression in clay • Symbols became more and more abstract • Used for every possible consonant-vowel combination • It was difficult to master and took years to learn • “Houses of the Tablet”

19. Evolution of writing

20. Cuneiform tablet • c. 2300 BCE

21. Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE) • Period of constant warfare between the city-states • Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000 people • This made competition for resources more intense • Rise of war leaders (lugals) • Held the status of king • Acted as both secular and religious figures • They led the armies of their gods into battle • It was important to them to remain in their god’s favor • Replaced the priests as the leaders of the communities • Because of constant warfare, no one lugal became dominant

22. Statue of a man worshiping • Early Dynastic Period (c.2750-2600BCE)

23. Sumerian Religion • Religion played a major role in the Sumerian city-states • Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods • Each city felt that their city was the property of one particular god or goddess • Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting their own city • The physical environment had a major impact on how the Sumerians viewed the world • Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive humidity, and scorching winds • Suffered from the famines that resulted from these disasters • According to Sumerian myth, humans were created to do the manual labor the gods were unwilling to do themselves

24. Sumerian Religion • They were afraid of being punished by the gods if they did not worship and praise them enough • They sought to appease—or not be punished by—the gods • Performed rituals and sacrifices • “Land of No Return” • Development of divination • They wanted to discover what the gods were going to do • Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or omen • Rituals and prayers were developed to influence the gods and ward off demons • However, the only people who knew these rituals and prayers were the priests

25. Sumerian Technology and Trade • They learned how to smelt tin and copper into bronze which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE) • They used the wheel for transport • Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c. 3,500 BCE • Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel carts • Development of math system • Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for practical solutions • Used multiplication and division and created tables for the computation of interest • Geometry was used for building domes and arches

26. Sumerian Technology and Trade • The Sumerians developed astronomy • They charted the chief constellations • Development of a lunar calendar • Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year • An extra month was added to bring it into sync with the solar year • They also developed a complex trade system • They traded for raw materials that they did not possess • They built trade routes throughout the Mesopotamian region • Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean

27. Akkadian Empire • c. 2300 BCE

28. Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) • Akkadians • From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer • They had been influenced by the Sumerians • Shared similar cultures but each retained their own language • Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be “outsiders” and barbarians • Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE) • The leader of the Akkadians • According to legend, as a baby a gardener found him floating down a river in a basket

29. Bust believed to be of Sargon of Akkad

30. Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) • Sargon was best known for being the first person to unify the Sumerian city-states • He did this by conquering them and adding them to his own empire • He established a new dynastic empire • Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean • Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of the cities • Exploited the already developed trade routes to strengthen the base of his empire • His economic influence stretched as far away as Ethiopia and India

31. Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) • Naram-Sin (2255 – 2219 BCE) • He continued the expansion of the empire • He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the arts • He also claimed to be “the god of Agade” (Akkad) • He was followed by a group of three weak successors who were unable to preserve the empire • The reasons why the Akkadians were successful: • Shared almost everything with the Sumerians except language • Respected the Sumerian religion and gods • Were able to create a unified government where the Sumerians were unable to

32. Naram-Sin’s victory stele (Louvre)

33. Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE) • Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE) • Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin • Pursued military conquests and centralizing the government • Code of Ur-Nammu • Earliest legal code • Required the payment of fines for most crimes • Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE) • He continued the successful empire • Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur • Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE) • He was too weak to rule • This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty

34. Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur

35. Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE) • Sumerian Renaissance • The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in culture • However, this did not have a lasting effect on the region • Other groups would have more of an influence in the region over the next 1,500 years • The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE) • Earliest known piece of literature • It was based on a series of poems written • Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700 BCE) • Tales about military conquest and heroism • Gilgamesh v. Enkidu – city v. wilderness • Pessimistic toward natural environment

36. Old Babylonian Empire

37. Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) • Babylon was a small city-state in central Mesopotamia • It was controlled by the Amorites • Location between rivers gave it great economic and military significance • Also between two powerful Amorite cities • Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) • He was the sixth king of Babylon • One of the first rulers to conquer through diplomacy rather than sheer force • Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and writing

38. Hammurabi • (1792-1750 BCE)

39. Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) • Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under Marduk • Marduk was the god of Babylon • Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the dominant god of the empire • Used Marduk’s supremacy over the other gods as his justification to rule • Code of Hammurabi • A collection of laws used throughout his empire • Contained 282 laws which regulated people’s relationships throughout Mesopotamia • Based on actual rulings handed down by Hammurabi

40. The Code of Hammurabi

41. The Code of Hammurabi • The Code was probably never intended to be a code of laws in the modern sense • Was used as propaganda to publicize the king’s devotion to justice • It reveals a society with strict justice • Lists three classes: the elite, the masses, and slaves • Penalties were severe but they were adjusted based on the social class of the parties involved • Reflected issues and responsibilities the government had to deal with • This included slavery, land tenure, commerce, consumer protection, and marriage

42. The Code of Hammurabi • Punishments for crimes varied according to one’s social class • Crimes against the upper class were punished more severely • Crimes against the lower class were punished more leniently • Old Babylonian Society • Upper class nobles controlled large estates and wealth • Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally free individuals • “Dependents” of the palace or temple • Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and officials • At the bottom were the slaves • In general, the slaves were treated harshly • Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war

44. Development of Civilization in Egypt • The Nile River was of central importance to Egyptian civilization • Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of fertile land for growing crops • Egyptian civilization developed along very different lines than Mesopotamia • Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable • Land around the Nile did not require extensive irrigation • State intervention was not necessary for food production so the villages remained small and rural

45. Development of Civilization in Egypt • Nile River valley was protected by natural barriers • Desert to the east and west • Rapids (cataracts) to the south • Gave a sense of isolation and security • Still had access to the Mediterranean to the north so they were not any trade barriers for Egyptians • The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt • The fastest way to travel throughout the land • Made transportation and communication much easier • Because of the stability and reliability of the Nile, the Egyptians had a sense of security and changelessness

46. Figurine of a woman from predynastic Egypt c.3500-3400BCE

47. Predynastic Egypt (10,000 – 3100 BCE) • The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs • Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE • The Nile valley region was able to supply an abundance of food for long periods of time • Increased population • The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around 3,200 BCE, all near the Nile • Sophisticated fortifications • Elaborate temples • Attracted industry and travelers • High degrees of social specialization • Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt

48. Narmer Palette • c. 3100 BCE

49. Organization of Egyptian History • Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE) • Set the basic framework for Egyptian history • In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by dynasties • Today, Egyptian history is divided into three major periods • Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms • These were periods were each marked with: • Long-term stability with strong monarchical authority and competent administrations • Construction of temples and pyramids • Freedom from invasion • Intellectual and cultural activities • Between the periods are Intermediate Periods • Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and invasions

50. Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) • By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by King Narmer • Started the first dynasty • Archaic Period is characterized by: • Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt) • First dynastic rulers came into being • Pharaohs were considered divine, not just received divine favor • Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly manifestation of Horus, the falcon god • Development of hieroglyphics • These were “priest-carvings” or “sacred writings” developed during the first two dynasties • They were pictographs that had a sacred value