Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization IHIS-101 Unit 7 – Late Antiquity

Diocletian • (284-305)

The Late Empire • While the Empire was on the verge of collapse during the 3rd century, it rebounded during the 4th century • This was due to two very strong emperors: Diocletian and Constantine • Both of them brought order and stability back to the Empire • However, this was done at the expense of the freedom of the citizenry • It is a period of a new government, economic, and social systems • It is also a period of a new religion: Christianity

Diocletian (284-305) • Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (284-305) • Born into a lower class family • Rose up in status in the army • In 284, the army chose him as the new emperor • Major change was in restructuring of the Empire • Reorganized into a much more efficient bureaucracy • Tetrarchy • The empire was divided into two parts, each with two prefectures (total of four) • Those prefectures were divided into a total of twelve dioceses • The total number of provinces was increased to almost 100 • All of this was designed as a way of keeping greater control

Diocletian (284-305) • Economic problems • One of the largest problems was inflation • Stabilized the currency and new system of taxation • He “locked” people into certain key professions • The population was stagnating and there were not enough men able to work in certain jobs • Workers were not allowed to leave certain professions (e.g., baker, shipper, tax collector, farmer, soldier, etc.) • The positions also became hereditary • Sets the stage for serfdom • Small farmers begin working on the large estates due to the economic downturn

Constantine I • (306-337)

Constantine I (306-337) • Constantine I (306-337) • Born into a military family in Illyricum • Unfortunately, not much is known about his early life • Continued Diocletian’s military and economic policies • The army’s size was increased to 500,000 • He focused on numerous building projects in the provinces • These put a heavy strain on the empire’s finances • In 330, built the new capital city of Byzantium • By this point Rome was no longer the center of power of the Empire as it was not centrally located • The location was perfect because it was easily defendable and located along the eastern trade routes

Mosaic of Constantine • c. 1000 CE

Religion in the Roman Empire • The official religion in the Empire was the worship of a pantheon of gods • Religious worship was done on both the state and personal level • Rituals were a key aspect to this religion • It was also a very tolerant religion that incorporated the worship of gods from other territories • Household cults were popular with the commoners • It gave them a greater sense of spiritualism • Also gave them closer contact to the gods than the official religion

Religion in the Roman Empire • Mystery cults were focused on the belief in a guaranteed afterlife • Coming over from Greek religion, Mithraism was very popular in the empire, especially among soldiers • In Rome, Mithras was known as the Unconquered Sun and would be worshipped on Sundays • Rome and the Jews • Romans first got involved with the Jews around 63 BCE • By 6 CE, Judaea was a Roman province • During this time period, there was unrest among the different Jewish groups

Judaism • Sadducees • Were the conservative group • Strictly followed Hebrew law and did not believe in immortality • Their worship focused around the Temple • Politically, they wanted cooperation with the Romans • Pharisees • Were strict on following Jewish ritual • Specifically emphasized the purity laws, including dietary rules • Unlike the Sadducees, they believed in expanding the Torah • They also focused more on private worship • They wanted to get away from Roman control but did not want to do so violently

Judaism • Essenes • Small Jewish sect near the Dead Sea • They too wanted to get away from Roman control • Did so by withdrawing themselves from society • Zealots • They were the militant extremists • They promoted a violent overthrow of Roman rule • What did they have in common? • The belief that a savior would come to liberate the Jewish people • The first three saw him as a spiritual leader while the zealots a political leader

Madonna and Child

Jesus of Nazareth • Jesus of Nazareth (c. 7-2 BCE – c. 26-36 CE) • Most of what historians know of Jesus is through the New Testament • These gospels were written quite some time after his death and by people who did not know him directly • Scholars disagree on most of the chronology of his life • Scholars do not know a lot about his first thirty years • His parents were Joseph, a carpenter, and Mary • He was born in Bethlehem and grew up in Galilee • Galilee at the time was a hot bed of militant Zealots

Jesus of Nazareth • Unlike the Zealots, Jesus did not believe in a violent revolution • Instead he believed in a heavenly kingdom • This attracted a large following • Theology • His message was simple: love God and love your neighbor • He did not call for strict adherence to Jewish laws • Instead, he believed in the interpretation of them • He focused on three concepts: humility, brotherly love, and charity • These ideas were new to the time period and very different from the Greco-Roman value systems • It was not his goal to undermine traditional Judaism

Jesus of Nazareth • For three years he preached his ideas in Judea and Galilee, gaining a large following • While some believed he was the Messiah, not everybody was a fan • Radical Jews denounced him for the idea of a heavenly kingdom rather than an earthly one • Conservative Jews believed he was just another false messiah who was undermining traditional Judaism • Roman authorities in Palestine saw Jesus as a potential revolutionary • His idea of a heavenly kingdom might somehow be used as a means to start a revolt against Rome • He was arrested by Roman authorities

Jesus of Nazareth • According to the Gospel of Mark, the Roman Prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, did not want to execute him • He told the crowd to chose between Jesus and another insurrectionist named Barabbas • The crowd chose Barabbas • Did not end the threat of insurrection • Jesus was seen as a martyr • According to his followers, Jesus was resurrected three days after his death and then ascended into heaven • Jesus was named Christ (“anointed one” in Greek) • Many believed he would return and bring in the kingdom of God on Earth

Birth of Christianity • Christianity began as a movement inside of Judaism • For many decades, the Romans viewed them as a sect of Judaism • Paul of Tarsus (c.5-c.64 CE) • One of the most important figures to the birth of Christianity • While he never knew Jesus in life, he had a vision of his resurrection and became a follower • He spread the idea of Christianity to the non-Jews (the Gentiles) • This helped to transform it from a Jewish sect to a more broad based religion

Birth of Christianity • Many refer to Paul of Tarsus as the “second founder of Christianity” because of his work • It was Paul who identified Jesus as the Son of God • He also said that Jesus had come to cleanse all men of Original Sin, which was done through his death • He believed that salvation was available only to those who accepted Jesus as their savior • He created Christian communities throughout Asia Minor • He also wrote a series of letters that outlined Christian beliefs for the different communities

Birth of Christianity • Jerusalem had been the center of Christianity • The city was destroyed in 70 CE • This left many churches with considerable independence • By 100 CE, there were Christian churches in most of the major cities in the east • There were also some in the western part of the empire • Communities were loosely organized • Both men and women played significant roles • Women even held high positions including preachers • Christians were meet in private homes and share an agape to celebrate the Lord’s Supper

Birth of Christianity • Christians also used missionaries to spread the “good news” • Roman officials treated early appearance of Christianity with indifference • However, they began to view them as a threat to the state • Why were the Christians a threat? • Practice of Lord’s Supper led to rumors of ritualistic murder of children • Held secret meetings that were deemed “dangerous” • Were overly exclusive and did not participate in Roman state festivals or worship of Roman gods • This constituted atheism and an act of treason

Birth of Christianity • Persecution of the Christians • Persecutions were intermittent and short-lived • Started during the reign of Nero • Persecution actually helped strengthen the church • Helped make it a more centralized organization • The position of bishop was created as leaders to the church • Saw their power descended from the original Twelve Apostles • Created a new hierarchical structure • By 300, 1-5% of total Roman population were possibly Christians

Birth of Christianity • What was the appeal of Christianity? • By 3rd century, it had spread throughout the empire • Offered a lot • Gave meaning to the everyday mundane things • Gave a personal relationship with the God • Promise of salvation • Not entirely unfamiliar • Similar to the other mystery religions of the east • However, it actually had a human figure instead of a mythological one • Did not involved difficult or expensive rituals

Birth of Christianity • Fulfilled the human need to belong • Created communities • Helped with assisting the poor, sick, widows, and orphans • Was not sterile or impersonal like the Roman religion • Attractive to all classes • Appealed to broad range of social classes • Offered new roles to women • Starting in the 2nd century, church started believing women should be subject to men

Birth of Christianity • During the Terrible Third Century, the Christians were heavily persecuted • Decius (249-251) blamed the disasters of the time on the Christians • As they failed to worship the state gods, the gods were retaliating • Forced Christians to make sacrifices to the Roman gods • When they refused, they were executed • There was also heavy persecution under the reign of Diocletian • By this point, Christianity had gotten too powerful

The Christian Martyr’s Last Prayer (1883)

Rise of Christianity • Under Constantine, Christianity flourished • Constantine converted to Christianity • After the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312) • Saw a vision of a Christian cross and the words “In this sign you will conquer” • Won the battle and began believing in the Christian god • Edict of Milan (313) • Signed by the two emperors • Granted religious tolerance to all religions in the Empire • Legally recognized the Christian religion • Call for a restoration of property seized by Diocletian

Rise of Christianity • Post-Constantine Empire • Almost all of the emperors were Christians • Only exception was Julian (360-363) who tried to restore the old state religion • Theodosius (378-395) made Christianity the official religion of the Empire • With state support, the Christian church was able to push for a monopoly • Used their influence to outlaw pagan religious practices

Development of the Christian Church • By the end of the 4th century, Christianity was the predominant religion in the empire • Organization • Went through significant organizational and structural changes • Based these on the Roman territorial plans • Diocese • Territories were divided up into dioceses • Each was headed by a bishop • Bishops of Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch held special positions • Claimed their churches were founded by original apostles

Development of the Christian Church • Need for formal organization due to rise in heresy • Problem of heresy • Different, sometimes contradictory, interpretations emerged • Heresy – Teaching different theology than official beliefs of the church • Donatism • Donatus was a priest in North Africa • Argued that sacraments should not be given by priests who were either immoral or denied their faith under persecution • Constantine forced to call a council to denounce this • Was not until 411 that the church stated that the moral standing of the priest did not affect the efficacy of the sacraments

Development of the Christian Church • Arianism • Founded by Arius, a priest from Alexandria • Stated that Jesus was human and therefore not truly God • Bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius, argued Jesus was both • Constantine was forced to call the Council of Nicaea (325) in response • Stated that Jesus was of “the same substance of God” • Impact • Forced the emperor to become more involved in church affairs • Also called for one specific leader for the church

Development of the Christian Church • Rise of the pope • In the original church, bishops held most of the influence and power • It would be the Bishop of Rome that emerged as the true leader • Petrine Supremacy • Stated that the Bishop of Rome held the most important position in the church and this was founded in the Scriptures • According to Gospel of Matthew, “I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church” • Peter was considered the first Bishop of Rome • All of his successors were considered the “vicars of Christ” on earth

Development of the Christian Church • During the 4th and 5th centuries, the Bishops of Rome began to solidify their power • St. Damasus (366-384) • Addressed other bishops as “sons” rather than “brothers” • By the end of the 4th century, bishops of Rome were using the title of papa • St. Leo I (440-461) • Pushed the doctrine of Petrine supremacy • Jesus chose Peter to be the head of the Christian church • Stated he was the heir to Peter • Supremacy of the bishops of Rome was established by the end of the 5thcnetury

St. Leo I • Bishop of Rome • (440-461)

Roles of Church and State • Church and the Emperors • Once the emperors converted to Christianity, they saw themselves as God’s representatives on earth • Built churches and played an active role in church’s organization • Also became involved in church government and doctrinal controversies • Role of Bishops • With the fall of the Empire, bishops were able to play a more active role in government • Served as advisors to Emperors • Started playing independent political roles as the power vacuums were created

Roles of Church and State • St. Ambrose (339-397) • Bishop of Milan (374-397) • Was not even baptized when he was elected for the position • City population proclaimed him to be the Bishop • He created the ideal image of a bishop through his writings • Wanted to keep the independence of the church away from Imperial authorities • Conflict with Emperor Theodosius I • Ambrose wanted harsher actions against pagans • Theodosius refused • In 390, Theodosius massacred the people of Thessalonica for refusing to obey his commands

Roles of Church and State • Ambrose responded with a temporary excommunication • Made Theodosius take part in public penance in Milan • After this, Ambrose had greater influence over Theodosius • Creation of a dual power structure • With the bishops retaining their independence, emerges two ruling powers: temporal and spiritual • Church will become the higher authority as it provided the means to salvation • Temporal authorities would have to show subservience to the church

St. Ambrose • (339-397)

New Patterns of Thought • Embracing pagan heritage • Some in the Christian church were outwardly hostile to the pagan world • Others encouraged the church to absorb pagan history and culture • Influence of Greek culture • Church adopted Greek as its language • New Testament was written in Greek • Rise of Neoplatonism • Believed that a person could use reason to achieve a union with God • Helped to explain the difference between Jesus’ divine and human natures

New Patterns of Thought • St. Jerome (345-420) • Translated the Old and New Testaments into the vulgate (Latin) • His version of the Scriptures became known as the Latin Vulgate • This was the prominent edition for the church throughout the Middle Ages • St. Ambrose (c. 340-397) • Believed that human conduct should be based on reverence for God • God helps some Christians and not others (the “gift of grace”)

New Patterns of Thought • St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430) • Traveled to Milan and was influenced by St. Ambrose • Believed that divine revelation was necessary for understanding the complete truth • Writings had a major impact on the development of such concepts of free will, grace, and predestination • Confessions (397) • An account of his own personal and spiritual experiences • Designed as a guide to help others with their own search • City of God (410) • There was the City of God in heaven • City of the World was still necessary to keep people from falling to their primitive and sinful instincts

St. Augustine of Hippo • (354-430)

Rise of Monasticism • The growth of Christianity was greatly helped by the development of monasticism • Monachus - Latin word for “someone who lives alone” • Monk was a person who was divorced from the world • Lived outside of human society in order to pursue an ideal of godliness or total dedication to the will of God • Developed in Egypt • Eremitical Monasticism • First form of monasticism • Purpose was living a solitary life and forsaking all civilized society to pursue spirituality

Rise of Monasticism • St. Anthony (c.251-356) • Was the “father of eremitical monasticism” • Was a prosperous Egyptian peasant • Followed Gospel of Mark “Go, sell everything you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me.” • Gave away all of his possessions, including 300 acres of land • Spent the rest of his life in the desert • Impact • Changed the ideal Christian model from one of martyr to monk as they were no longer being persecuted • Goal was to achieve spiritual life through denial and solitude

St. Anthony • (c.251-356)

Rise of Monasticism • Cenobitic Monasticism • Not everyone was willing to live a life of solitude • Development of monasticism based upon communal life • St. Pachomius (c.290-346) • Organized communities of monks • Wrote the first monastic rules for living in communities • Stressed obedience and manual labor • St. Basil (329-379) • Founder of eastern monasticism • Believed communities were necessary for fellowship and work • Communal societies became ideal Christian societies

Rise of Monasticism • St. Benedict of Nursia (c.480-c.543) • Established the fundamental form of monasticism in the west • First attempted to hermetic solitude but was surrounded by followers • Set up a monastic house in Monte Cassino in 529 • Became the foundation of other monastic groups • Benedict’s rules of monasticism • Did not follow the eastern practices (e.g., extended fasting and self-inflicting torments) • Believed in the ideal of moderation • Still included a hard and disciplined existence based on poverty, chastity, and obedience

Rise of Monasticism • Division of the day • Each day was to be divided up into a series of activities • Focused mainly on prayer and physical labor • Believed that “idleness is the enemy of the soul” • Prayer included private meditations and reading • Monks would meet seven times a day for common prayer and psalms • Abbots • Each monastery was ruled by an abbot (“father” of the monastery) • Elected by fellow monks • Had complete authority over them

St. Benedict of Nursia • (c.480-c.543)

Rise of Monasticism • Women also sought religious lives as well • They too wanted to dedicate their lives to God • Started organizing religious communities in the 3rd century • St. Pachomius • Organized cenobitic communities for women after 320 • Brothers took care of the material needs of the convent • Kept a close eye on the relations between the monks and nuns • St. Caesarius of Arles (c. 468-542) • Set up the first monastic rule for women in the west • Emphasized rigid cloistering of women to safeguard them

Western Civilization I HIS-101